The Effects Of The Hawthorne Experiments Commerce Essay

The Effects Of The Hawthorne Experiments Commerce Essay The Hawthorne experiments were conducted at Western Electrics Hawthorne plant in Illinois, running from 1924 through 1932. These experiments were intended to examine how people would react to certain conditions such as light, heat, and humidity. These variables were altered and produced both expected and unexpected results. Further trials embarked as Professor George Elton Mayo brought an academic research team into the factory, which were among the most extensive social science studies ever conducted. These investigations have been heavily criticized for merely serving the interest of management. However, these accusations can be argued. The Hawthorne investigations did not only have enormous influence on the human factors to management but also on the development of industrial psychology and sociology. Some maintain their opinion that the human relations approach is misinterpreted, leading to major failures. The Hawthorne studies were initially undertaken to investigate the relationship between physical work conditions and employers productivity. But the experiments represented revolutionary work in the field of management and lead to the creation of the human relations movement. These studies broke the boundaries of the management theory of the time, Taylorism. Scientific management, developed by Frederick W. Taylor, was a concentration exclusively on the physical aspects of work, ignoring the psychological needs and capabilities of the worker. Taylors view of management became inadequate due to the findings of the Hawthorne researchers, who revealed that the physical work environment was one of the only many aspects which influence employee productivity. This style of management became known as authoritarian. The human relations school was concerned with the human aspect of work, meaning that interpersonal relations, especially the feelings within working groups were of importance. Gro up harmony, satisfaction of individual needs, and the care for people were vital. By the individual worker being able to participate and involved in the decision making related positively to the productivity. In other words, this represents a democratic way of leadership. Nonetheless, particular studies also point out that productivity is sometimes positively connected to the authoritarian style. Showing that certain people do prefer to be controlled and directed. The primary experiment for the Hawthorne studies was to examine the connection between the illumination intensity and employee productivity. It showed that as the lightning improved in the experimental room, production increased. But production also rose in the control room. Followed by a slight amount of light in the experimental room, production was still rising, while there was constant illumination in the control room However, the results by 1927 were so confusing, that Elton Mayo and an academic research team were invited to continue a variety of inquiries on productivity and the motivation of worker. The next experiment that took place from 1927 to 1933 was the Relay assembly test room. This engaged a small group of female staff taken to work in a Relay assembly room, away from the regular workforce, varying the number and lengths of breaks and working days. The women were cautiously studied and a total of thirteen periods with different rest pauses, hours of work, and breaks for refreshment were conducted. The result of this phase showed that regardless the changes, there was almost no persistent increase in output. This became known as the Hawthorne Effect. This effect refers to the tendency that people act differently when being observed during a research. The results were influenced by this reaction of the small group of women due to the observation of the researchers. The women were not motivated by the improvements of their working conditions or money, but a reason was that working in a group had increased their output. However, in the group work the productivity rose by 15 percent and management made rest breaks more common. Psychologists were especially interested in this particular study. They found it phenomenal that peoples attitudes changed as they were being watched since it seemed more important than changes to the physical work conditions. The Interviewing programme took place from 1928 until 1930. In this period of time 21,000 employees were interviewed. Interviewers began through asking highly structured questions on work and its conditions and then about non-related work issues, e.g. on family and social issues. The friendlier, the more interest the supervisors showed in the individual worker, and the less harsh discipline existed, the more increases in productivity and morale became significant. The researchers learned a great deal about the staffs attitude towards their job. This findings reveal that workers actually lacked social support and that placing individuals in groups had a positive effect. A famous psychologist, Rensis Likert, contended that organizations should be managed as a collection of groups, rather than individuals. The Bank wiring observations room experiments commenced in 1931 until 1932. This test was conducted without any alteration in the working condition. A group of fourteen workers were taken from the production line and observed for six months. Each employee had three different jobs but worked together in order to produce one output. During this time, the group developed its own procedures to defend its own interests. Productivity remained constant and was unaffected by work payments. The group had developed informal rules of behaviour and determined what was a fair days payment for a fair days work. The workers were afraid that if they produced considerably more output, that the daily unit output would be replaced by an increase of expected output. These results show that the social forces were far more important for the worker than the controls and regulations of the organization. Again stressing the meaning for the worker to belong to a group and not be isolated. Communication from t he superior to the employee would eliminate such misunderstandings. The Hawthorne studies did contribute an immense amount to management and served them enormously as we have seen from the various experiments discussed. It was a revolutionary research project at that point of time and discovered a whole new era in the human relations movement. Nevertheless, the Hawthorne reports did affect psychology and sociology. It affected especially the industrial psychology, meaning the observation of specific human behavior. Especially, the Hawthorne effect was in the interest of the psychologists and it became one of the best-known psychological results. The effect has been generalized to every kind of psychological study. However, recently the Hawthorne effect has been reanalyzed and considering it to be a myth. There is no solid evidence that the workers in the relay room felt better in response to personal attention by supervisors and the participation in a new programme. Criticisms always exist with each single new discovery; someone will always have something to declare. It is up to the manager to know how to handle its business. However, it may be true that Mayos conclusions of human relations movement cannot always be applied. Some organizations need more direction and a specific structure for their employees. Finding a midpoint with both the Taylorism and Mayonism would be an effective way of leadership. Further criticisms pronounce that the Hawthorne studies cannot be seen as an accurate research paper. They insist that there was a lack of adequate control in the study. There were rumours that Elton Mayo did not appear, accurately controlled the variables of the experiment, nor noted them down correctly. Supposedly, changes in the number of participants, misinterpretations, and inaccurate history of work circumstances during the study, provided false results. Adair said: In the first 15 experimental psychology textbooks I examined with reference to Hawthorne, not one had described the studies accurately Yet, these factors are minor when considering the real contributions the Hawthorne studies have brought to management and psychology. These are determents that exist but not make the study any less valuable to knowledge. Another ideological critique argues that the studies showed a pro-management bias in favour of manipulating the workforce. However, the key view of management at th at time was Taylorism, which entirely ignored the human element. No matter how many critiques and debates there are about the faults of the Hawthorne studies, the contributions well over take all assumptions. The discovery that physical work conditions were not the prime importance of the worker but also social factors was a break through. The main conclusions that can be drawn from Elton Mayos experiments are it is essential that work is a group activity, the necessity of recognition, need for security, and job satisfaction. Organizations are social systems, not just technical economic systems. It was proven that management requires social skills and not just technical skills. Only giving the employee specific instructions and demands will give the worker the wrong impression. It is necessary to have some contact in order to achieve knowledge of what is going on between the workers. This knowledge can effectively improve the bosss management skill and through this contact earn the necessary respect. Since, the Hawthorne studies are not methodologically precise, it does not reduce the importance of their findings. They were revolutionary, no one before had noticed that human relations were that important to organizational output. Humans were seen as machines until the studies came along. Then the well being of employee s became of significant and changed the way managerial style. In conclusion, it has become evident that there are various approaches to organizational efficiency. The first significant method was scientific management, where the main focus was on the physical aspect of work, also on the individual worker and not group work. Taylor furthermore ignored the importance of other rewards than money, such as achievement and job satisfaction. As the Hawthorne studies were conducted and moved away from Taylorism, which indicated a paradigm shift, redefining the field of management research. It had broken the traditional theory of Taylor and no study had ever had such an impact on management as the Hawthorne investigations. Elton Mayo was known as the main supporter of the human relations movement in management. He stated that in order to motivate people, meaning increase in output and efficiency, the individual worker has to believe that their corporation cares about them, is concerned, and willing to listen. The emotional and social sides were major at tributes of organizational behavior. These studies did have an enormous amount of influence on management but also on sociology and psychology. In spite of all criticisms, the Hawthorne studies still contributed a significant amount and redefined management. It also brought one of the most important results to psychology. Lloyd, Baird S., Post James E., Mahon, John F. Management, Functions and Responsibilities New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1990. P. 22 Huczynski Andrzej Buchanan David Organizational Behaviour, Fourth edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall Europe, 2001p. 281 Henderson, George Human Relations Issues in Management Westport: Quorum Books, 1996.p. 24 ibid p. 33 Huczynski Andrzej Buchanan David Organizational Behaviour, Fourth edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall Europe, 2001. p. 280 Warner, Malcolm, ed. International Encyclopedia of Business and Management Volume 2, England: Routledge, 1996. p. 1737. Kakabadse Andrew, Ludlow Ron Vinnicombe Susan Working in Organizations, London: Penguin Books, 1978.P. 191 ibid p. 191 ibid p. 192 Huczynski Andrzej Buchanan David Organizational Behaviour, Fourth edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall Europe, 2001 p. 282-283 ibid p. 283 Warner, Malcolm, ed. International Encyclopedia of Business and Management Volume 2, England: Routledge, 1996. p. 1793 ibid p. 1793 Huczynski Andrzej Buchanan David Organizational Behaviour, Fourth edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall Europe, 2001. p. 289 Warner, Malcolm, ed. International Encyclopedia of Business and Management Volume 2, England: Routledge, 1996. p. 1793 Leahley, Thomas Hardy, A History of Modern Psychology, Second edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1994. p. 364 ibid p. 367 Warner, Malcolm, ed. International Encyclopedia of Business and Management Volume 2, England: Routledge, 1996. p. 1740 ibid p. 1741 ibid p. 1740

Haack On Fuzzy Logic Essay -- Haack Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Haack On Fuzzy Logic ABSTRACT: Much of the progress in modern logic beyond Aristotle is due to the invention of a precise and powerful formalism, and this is why Haack is reluctant to weaken it. What motivates her to regard deviant and fuzzy logic as extensions rather than rivals of classical logic is its demonstrated capacity for refinement and progress. Thus she sharply distinguishes between a logic dealing with fuzzy concepts (she accepts), and one which is itself fuzzy, i.e., where "true" and "false" cease to be precise concepts (she rejects). While it is often more convenient to retain as much as possible of classical logic because of its simplicity and familiarity, there is nothing in the hermeneutical view of logic to render it immune from revision. Yet to treat logic as a canon of interpretation conflicts with Haack's idea of what logic is and does. L.A. Zadeh who introduced the term "fuzzy logic" reserves it for the result of a second stage of fuzzification, motivated by the idea that "true" and "false" are themselves vague: a family of systems in which the indenumerably many values of truth values of the base logic are superseded by denumerably many fuzzy truth values, true, false, very true, fairly true, not very true, etc. For fuzzy logic, Zadeh tells us, such traditional concerns as approximation, proof procedures, etc. are "peripheral" because fuzzy logic is not just logic of fuzzy concepts, but is logic, which is itself fuzzy. (1) Susan Haack criticizes Zadeh on the grounds that fuzzy logic is not well motivated, since truth does not come in degrees. Inevitably some will protest that fuzzy logic is working, and so that her distaste for it can only be an expression of a Fregean prejudice. But she claims that i... ...ic Justification of a Conceptual Notation," 1882/translation by Bynum T. Ward in Gottlob Frege: Conceptual Notation and Related Articles, Oxford: Claredon Press 1982, p. 86. (6) F.S.C. Schiller, Formal Logic, A Scientific and Social Problem, London: Macmillan 1912, p. 8. (7) Haack, p. 233. (8) R. Carnap, Logical Foundations of Probability, Chicago: Chicago University Press 1950. (9) Haack, p. 233. (10) ibid. p. 234. (11) L.A. Zadeh and R.E. Bellman, "Local and Fuzzy Logics," in M. Dunn and G. Epstein, Eds, Modern Uses of Multiple-Value Logics, Dordrecht: Reidel 1977, pp. 106-107. (12) Haack, p. 236. (13) ibid. p. 237. (14) L.A. Zadeh, "A Fuzzy-Algorithm Approach to the Definition of Complex or Imprecise Concepts," International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 1976 vol.8 p.269n. (15) Haack, p.238. (16) ibid. p. 240. (17) ibid. p. 242.

Apple, a Socially Responsible Corporation

Apple, a Socially Responsible Corporation It is no mystery that companies exist and desire to make a profit from their product or service being offered. However, it is becoming increasing popular that companies desire to achieve social responsibility in order to increase their public image, which in turn should lead to increased profits. In this class, we learned that social responsibility is the duty to take an action that will benefit the interests of society and the organization (Kinicki & Williams 2011).One of the ways to become more socially responsible that is adopted by many companies is through green management, which is referred to using various policies to reduce environmental problems (Tim Barnett, n. d. ). More and more companies are becoming concerned about the impact their organization is having on the natural environment. Green management can, and should be, done by small and large organizations since it can increase the public image of the organization, thus affecting consumer’s perspectives and investors’ behavior.In the short-term, going green means that management assists in saving the natural environment. However, in the long-term, the costs will be reduced, thus increasing profits as well as achieving green management through waste minimization and improved energy efficiency. Therefore, making â€Å"going green† a win-win situation. By contrast, those companies that continuously cause pollutions will be criticized as companies of social irresponsibility, which will damage their public image and affect the sales of their products. For this research paper I have chosen to discuss Apple Inc. nd how they are a socially responsible corporation. Apple (then Apple Computer) was built by Steven Wozniak and Steven Jobs in April of 1976. For more than two decades, Apple was predominantly a manufacturer of personal computers, including the Apple I, II, Macintosh, and Power Mac lines. In 1985 Jobs was fired from the corporation he had help start. However, due to the low market share and rocky sales experienced during the 90s, Jobs returned as Apple’s CEO in 1996 (Company History, n. d. ). Apple’s products now include MacBook, iPod, iPhone, iPad, as well as some online services like iTunes and iCloud.Since Apple is currently the largest technology firm in the world, its policies about environment protection are certain to carry weight by public and even have some level of impact on the behavior of its suppliers. [update] One way that Apple has become socially responsible is by creating products that are multi-functional. In 2010, Apple launched a new product, the iPad. The iPad provides multi-functions such as e-book reader, cameras allowing for Face Time and HD video recording, Wi-Fi, 3G, and theater and music repository to name a few.This means that consumers who own an iPad no longer need to purchase e-book reader, camera, mp3 or mp4, and even the DVD player since it has gathered the functions of various products in one. In other words, it has fulfilled the different desire of the consumers in just one product. Perhaps this is why the iPad had been sold out in the first quarter of the 2010 financial year. Apple has also successfully developed a longer-lasting battery which outlasted competitor’s batteries.This means that consumers could save money since they will need not to buy new batteries frequently, which is important to consumers in deciding which technological products to choose. Moreover, Apple is also concerned with the energy efficiency. Every single Apple product not only meets but exceeds the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s strict ENERGY STAR guidelines for efficiency. Apple is the only company in the industry that can make this claim. The experience about designing the software and hardware system gives Apple a convenience to achieve this mission.For instance, the power consumed by Mac mini is one-sixth of power consumed by a ty pical light bulb! Such design can satisfy the demand of consumers since it can reduce the expenditures of electricity and thus can reduce their living expenses. In long-term, it can help this company to increase sales of their products. Apple has also developed a smaller and lighter packaging which has the ability to protect the products as well. For example, the new version of MacBook is fifty-three percent smaller than the first generation of MacBook.This kind of efficient packaging design not only enables the company to reduce the raw materials needed in and waste brought from the production process, it also helps to reduce the emissions produced during product transportation since a vehicle can carry more products, thus, reducing the amount of boats and planes used in distribution. Obviously, the smaller packaging decreases the cost of production such as fees for warehouses used and materials used as well as make their product easily carried by consumers. Another example is the packaging for the iPhone.It is almost entirely recyclable and its retail box is made primarily from bio-based materials. In addition, its packaging is extremely material efficient, allowing more units to be transported in a single shipping container. The paper used in packaging of every unit of iPhone 4 were reduced from 136g to 120g compared with that of the iPhone 3GS. Apple iPhone packaging is now getting smaller and smaller with each and every generation which is more economical and environmental. On the other hand, Apple’s retail stores implemented a â€Å"no plastic bags† policy in order to cut back on unnecessary packaging a few years ago.Plastic bags are difficult and costly to recycle, they will break down into tiny particles that contaminate the soil and waterways and penetrate the food chain when animals ingest them. They clog up gutters and drains causing water and sewage to overflow and become the breeding grounds of germs and bacteria that cause diseases. Therefore, this policy taken by Apple can help to significantly reduce the pollutions caused by thrown away plastic bags, especially since the quantities of products sold by Apple are over millions.Apple uses the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to calculate greenhouse gas emissions for each product. The Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Act requires that manufacturers of new televisions, computer and printers must have established an electronic recycling program by April 2011. (Roger Mock, 2011) As one of the manufacturer of technology production, Apple offered Electronic Waste Takeback Program which was established as part of Michigan Law which refers to proper disposal of hazardous materials.Hazardous material can damage our health by increasing cancer risk, damaging our body system and even lead to death. The European Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive restricts the use of lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominate d diphenyl ether, which Apple complies with. Apple also complies with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 which pertains to the lead content of consumer products and the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals Regulation CH (REACH) which pertains to chemicals and their safe use.In addition, Apple is on the European Chemicals Agency list for producing products that do not contain any substances of very high concern. Further, Apple, along with other top smart phone companies, signed an agreement on the standardization of mobile phone chargers which reduce the electronic waste and greenhouse gas emissions of such by the thousand tons (Apple Inc, 2012). To minimize the environment impact, Apple refers to precautionary principle to reduce and eliminate environmentally hazardous substances from their products.There are three important elements of this principle: preventative action, voluntary elimination and proactive search for safer substitut es (â€Å"Latest News about Environmental Protection Laws and Regulations,† 2010). They planned to completely eliminate the use of hazardous substances such as PVC and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in its products by the end of 2008. They have worked with the manufacturing partners to eliminate BFRs and harmful toxins. Finally, all Apple products are now free of BFRs and PVC and Apple plans to eliminate all forms of chlorine and bromine.The effects of hazardous substances can be skin irritation, asthma, losing consciousness, cancer, infection from bacteria and other micro-organisms, and on occasion, death. So, it is necessary to eliminate these harmful substances. Apple carefully manages the environmental impact of its facilities, and as a result they represent only two percent of its assessed greenhouse gas emissions, which come from the production, transport, use, and recycling of products (Apple Inc, 2011).Apple now discloses full product lifestyle emissions and carbo n footprint; it primarily reports on their facilities as a gauge of its environmental impact. For purpose to reduce the environmental impact, switching off the light and recycling office waste are not enough. There is the biggest impact of this company on the environment when using Apple’s products. That’s why Apple focuses on their product’s design and innovation. Apple has taken significant steps to lessen greenhouse gas emissions produced by its facilities worldwide (Apple Inc, 2011).Code of Ethics is a formal document that states an organization’s primary values and the ethical rules it expects managers and non-managerial employees to follow. The code of ethics for Apple is â€Å"Ethics: The Way We Do Business Worldwide, 2005. † It is applying all employees, including its top management. Apple’s stated policy includes expectations about maintaining high standards of business conduct, to be ethical in business dealings, to avoid conflicts of interest, to respect confidentiality, to conduct business within the law and to conduct business which benefits communities.Apple now requires suppliers to commit to their comprehensive Supplier Code of Conduct as condition of their contract with them since Apple is committed to ensuring that the highest standards of social responsibility throughout their supple base. Apple requires suppliers to provide a safe and healthy work environment, so suppliers must eliminate chemical hazards or minimize the use of some harmful materials according to the legal requirement (Apple Inc. 2012). In 2005, Apple started a recycling program. At that time, Apple decided to hold a free recycling program for its iPod digital music player.Their customers were able to bring the iPod to any of Apple’s (then) one hundred retail stores in the United States for free, environmentally friendly disposal. Besides that, those who brought their iPod in to recycle would receive ten percent discount on th e purchase of a new iPod on that day. This program continued until 2010. In 2010, Apple announced the updated program which increased the products eligible to be recycled. Now, iPod, iPhone, iPad and Mac can be sent to Apple retail stores for recycling (Apple, 2012).They have two categories on the recycling program which are computer reuse and recycling as well as iPod and mobile phones recycling. For the computer reuse and recycling program, they undertake the community to solve the environmental problems, especially the pollutions which may be caused from Apple’s productions. People can bring their old Mac batteries or computers whether they are working or nonworking. If it can be reused, then they will be given an Apple gift card which can be used to purchase Apple’s products. Otherwise, they will recycle it responsibly at no cost to the customer.Apple also accepts the computers which are non-Apple-brand because Apple contracts with WeRecycle! to process recycling f or those products. iPod and mobile phone recycling is a program that is similar to the two programs mentioned previously. However, if the person doesn’t live near any Apple retail store, he or she can simply go online to the Apple website and complete the form and recycle the iPod or mobile phone via mail (Apple 2012). Finally, Apple has become a socially responsible corporation with the implementation of a commuter alternative program which has more than ten thousand employee participants.At Apple headquarters in Cupertino, California, the company pays one hundred dollars per month of employees’ bus, train, light rail, vanpool, and other transit costs through its Apple Commuter Alternatives Program. They have more than eleven hundred Apple employees that ride their free biodiesel commuter coaches daily. Apple also provides lockers, showers, and turn-up subsidies for their employees who cycle, walk or run to work. In addition, Apple maintains a database of the employee ’s addresses and working schedules for those who are interested in ridesharing or carpooling.Further, Apple has offered free shuttle services for its employees as their workers transport between the Bay Area and Cupertino. Those shuttle buses provide seats with individual power connectors to run and charge notebooks while in transit as well as being equipped with Wi-Fi for internet connectivity. Apple estimates that these programs have eliminated the use of over a thousand single-occupant cars per day, thereby saving the environment of the pollution of over a thousand single-occupant cars per day.As you can see, Apple has put forth a lot of efforts in green management and being more socially responsible. According to Senior Vice President of Hardware Engineering, Bob Mansfield (2012), â€Å"Apple makes the most environmentally responsible products in our industry. † They achieve this through several perspectives: the product (e. g. multi-functional products), the emplo yees (e. g. commuter alternatives programs) and the environment (e. g. reduce using material that will harm the environment). Apple is strict and has a high demand in environmental safe programs.That’s why they design them to use less material, ship with smaller packaging, be free of toxic substances, and be as energy efficient and recyclable as possible (â€Å"The Story Behind Apple's Environmental Footprint,† 2012). Further, Apple not only meets government requirements, but they exceed them and still continue to improve their products to continually reduce the harm to the environment. Perhaps other companies should consider using Apple as a role model and together try to save the environment. After all, it is the only one we have. References 1. Unknown. (n. d. ). Company History: 1976-1981. In undefined.Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://www. apple-history. com/h1. 2. Mansfield, Bob. (July 13, 2012). A Letter From Bob Mansfield. In Apple and the Environment. Re trieved November 18, 2012, from http://www. apple. com/environment/letter-to-customers/. 3. Unknown. (2012). The Story Behind Apple's Environmental Footprint. In Apple and the Environment. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://www. apple. com/environment/. 4. Apple Inc. (January, 2012). Apple Supplier Code of Conduct. In undefined. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://images. apple. com/supplierresponsibility/pdf/Apple_Supplier_Code_of_Con

Myra Bradwell Lawyer and Womens Rights Advocate

Dates: February 12, 1831 - February 14, 1894 Occupation: lawyer, publisher, reformer, teacher Known for: pioneer woman lawyer, first woman in U.S. to practice law, subject of Bradwell v. Illinois Supreme Court decision, author of legislation for womens rights; first woman member of the Illinois Bar Association; first woman member of the Illinois Press Association; founding member of the Illinois Womans Press Association, the oldest organization of professional women writers Also known As: Myra Colby, Myra Colby Bradwell More About Myra Bradwell Though her background was in New England, descended on both sides from early Massachusetts settlers, Myra Bradwell is mainly associated with the Midwest, especially Chicago. Myra Bradwell was born in Vermont and lived with her family in New Yorks Genessee River Valley before the family moved to Schaumburg, Illinois, about 1843. She attended finishing school in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and then attended Elgin Female Seminary. There were no colleges in that part of the country that would admit women. After graduation, she taught for a year. Marriage Despite her familys opposition, Myra Bradwell married James Bolesworth Bradwell in 1852. He was descended from English immigrants and was a law student supporting himself through manual work. They moved to Memphis, Tennessee, and ran a private school together as he continued to study law. Their first child, Myra, was born in 1854. James was admitted to the Tennessee bar, and then the family moved to Chicago where James was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1855. He opened a law firm in partnership with Frank Colby, Myras brother. Myra Bradwell began to read law with her husband; no law school of the time would have admitted women. She conceived of her marriage as a partnership and used her growing legal knowledge to help her husband, taking care of the couples four children and household while also helping at James law office. In 1861, James was elected as a Cook County judge. Civil War and Aftermath When the Civil War began, Myra Bradwell became active in support efforts. She joined the Sanitary Commission and, with Mary Livermore, was involved in organizing a successful fund-raising fair in Chicago, to provide supplies and other support for the Commissions work. Mary Livermore and others she met in this work were active in the woman suffrage movement. At the end of the war, Myra Bradwell continued her support work by becoming active in, and president of, the Soldiers Aid Society, raising funds to support the families of soldiers. After the war, the suffrage movement split over strategic priorities of rights for African American men and womens rights, especially related to the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment. Myra Bradwell joined the faction including Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe, and Frederick Douglass that supported the Fourteenth Amendment as essential to guaranteeing black equality and full citizenship, even though it was flawed in only applying voting rights to males. She joined with these allies in founding the American Woman Suffrage Association. Legal Leadership In 1868, Myra Bradwell founded a regional legal newspaper, Chicago Legal News, and became both editor and business manager. The paper became a leading legal voice in the western United States. In editorials, Blackwell supported many of the progressive reforms of her time, from womens rights to the establishment of law schools. The newspaper and the associated printing business flourished under Myra Blackwells leadership. Bradwell was involved in extending married womens property rights. In 1869, she used her legal knowledge and skills to draft a law to protect the earnings of married women, and she also helped to protect the interest of widows in their husbands estates. Applying to the Bar In 1869, Bradwell took and passed with high honors the Illinois bar exam. Expecting to be admitted quietly to the bar, because Arabella Mansfield had been granted a license in Iowa (though Mansfield never actually practiced law), Bradwell was turned down. First, the Illinois Supreme Court found that she was disabled as a married woman since a married woman did not have separate legal existence from her husband and could not even sign legal contracts. Then, on a rehearing, the Supreme Court found that simply being a woman disqualified Bradwell. Myra v. Bradwell Supreme Court Decision Myra Bradwell appealed the decision to the United States Supreme Court, on the grounds of the Fourteenth Amendments equal protection provision. But in 1872, the court in Bradwell v. Illinois upheld the Illinois Supreme Courts decision to deny her admission to the bar, ruling that the Fourteenth Amendment did not require states to open the legal profession to women. The case didnt distract Bradwell from further work. She was instrumental in the consideration of extending the vote to women in the 1870 state constitution in Illinois. In 1871, the papers offices and printing plant were destroyed in the Chicago Fire. Myra Bradwell was able to get the paper published in time by using facilities in Milwaukee. The Illinois legislature granted the printing company the contract to republish official records lost in the fire. Before Bradwell v. Illinois was decided, Myra Bradwell and another woman whose application had also been denied by the Illinois Supreme Court joined forces in drafting a stature to allow both men and women admission into any profession or occupation. Before the U.S. Supreme Courts decision, Illinois had opened up the legal profession to women. But Myra Blackwell did not submit a new application. Later Work In 1875, Myra Blackwell took up the cause of Mary Todd Lincoln, involuntarily committed to an insane asylum by her son, Robert Todd Lincoln. Myras work helped win Mrs. Lincolns release. In 1876, in recognition of her role as a civic leader, Myra Bradwell was one of Illinois representatives to the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. In 1882, Bradwells daughter graduated from law school and became a lawyer. An honorary member of the Illinois State Bar Association, Myra Bradwell served as its vice president for four terms. In 1885, when the Illinois Womans Press Association was founded, the first women writers elected Myra Bradwell its president. She did not accept that office, but she did join the group and is counted among the founders. (Frances Willard and Sarah Hackett Stevenson were also among those who joined in the first year.) Closing Acts In 1888, Chicago was selected as the site for the Worlds Columbian Exposition, with Myra Bradwell being one of the key lobbyists winning that selection. In 1890, Myra Bradwell was finally admitted to the Illinois bar, on the basis of her original application. In 1892, the United States Supreme Court granted her a license to practice before that court. In 1893, Myra Bradwell was already suffering from cancer, but was one of the lady managers for the Worlds Columbian Exposition, and chaired the committee on law reform at one of the congresses held in conjunction with the exposition. She attended in a wheelchair. She died in Chicago in February 1894. The daughter of Myra and James Bradwell, Bessie Helmer, continued to publish the Chicago Legal News until 1925. Books About Myra Bradwell Jane M. Friedman. Americas First Woman Lawyer: The Biography of Myra Bradwell. 1993. Background, Family Mother: Abigail Willey ColbyFather: Eben ColbySiblings: four; Myra was the youngest Education Finishing school in Kenosha, WisconsinElgin Female Seminary Marriage, Children husband: James Bolesworth Bradwell (married May 18, 1852; lawyer, judge, legislator)children:Myra (1854, died age 7)Thomas (1856)Bessie (1858)James (1862, died age 2) Organizations: American Woman Suffrage Association, Illinois Bar Association, Illinois Press Association, 1876 Centennial Exposition, 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition