Christian Perspective on Counseling Essay

This is a personal theory paper which focuses on the Christian perspective; it involves the integration of faith and scripture into the personal counseling process. It discusses personality structures, individual differences and the motivations that guide and push the human person. Included is a contextual definition of health and the factors that cause illness. They are understood by using psychological techniques in concurrence with Biblical truths. Employing a theological worldview for counseling helps a therapist’s awareness of the innermost complexities of a client and enables them to be an effective guide towards the path of hope and healing. Introduction Counseling is centrally and critically a relationship between people who care (Crabb, 1977). It is essential that a psychotherapist develop a genuine desire for the well-being of a client. This is an ideal arrangement for which a Christian counselor can flourish, because â€Å"Every Christian is called to a ministry of encouraging and helping others (Crabb, 1977)†. Although an atmosphere of caring and encouragement is not limited to Christians it is ideal to integrate psychology and Christian spirituality to most effectively aid clients. Personality Personality structure and components There are many theories involving the structure of the human personality. One is the theory presented by Dr. Ron E. Hawkins (2006a). In this theory, Dr. Hawkins likens each individual to many concentric circles. Every circle is affected by the other circles but every one has its own distinctive characteristics. This structure can best elucidate the complexities that exist inside an individual. The boundaries between circles can help determine the source of each dilemma and each circle provides a different approach to problem-solving. The first circle is the innermost circle of a person and encapsulates the very essence of being human. It is in this most personal circle that the Holy Spirit inhabits within each believer, as supported by the biblical quote â€Å"The kingdom of God is within you† (Luke 17:21). Also included in this circle are the options of free-will and the concept of original sin. The original sin is common to all human beings as maintained by Paul when he writes his letter to the Romans and utters, â€Å"for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God† (Romans 3:23). It must be noted that outside of issues involving deliverance, there is not much that can be dealt with in this circle by human intervention. Instead, if a problem really reverberates from this circle it must be surrendered in strong faith to the hands of God. The next circle encloses the soul, feeling, and cognitive aspects of the human being. For most clients looking for counseling, this is the circle that receives the most focus. It is in this circle that emotional and psychological troubles not originating from biological sources resonate. The next circle in this theory of personality makeup is the biological circle. This circle consists of the biological processes and focuses on the wellness of the physical human body. Problems in this circle include chemical imbalance which is the failure to normalize the chemicals in the brain, resulting in problems like obsession, anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, and insomnia. Problems in this circle are more likely to have physical sources, like physical trauma or abuse. The next circle is another prevailing source of problems dealt with in counseling. The temporal circle, it is the beginning of external focused aspects. In this circle, external environmental structures like society and culture have a significant influence on the individual. Societal values and cultural expectations will always have an impact on personality development. Society, friends, family, and church are examples of the temporal systems that must be dealt with when counseling people. Learning who the client is responsible to and what he is responsible for is essential to developing personal responsibility (Cloud & Townsend, 1992). Additionally, the influences of the client’s family system are dealt with in this circle. The Bible supports this, â€Å"fathers, do not exasperate your children; instead bring them up in the training and instruction of the Lord† (Ephesians 6:4). Many problems can be rooted from the effects of family and environment The final circle of the human personality structure is the circle of the supernatural. This includes the archetypal epic struggle between good and evil, demons and angels. Despite this concept it is important to keep in mind that â€Å"our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms† (Ephesians 6:12). The Bible states that demonic power is a real and it would be imprudent to disregard its potential. Spiritual forces have a great impact on personality development and it cannot be excluded from the growth process Motivation There are five basic propositions about motivation: [1] human beings are all motivated to seek our needs, [2] motivational energy is channeled through the mind and results in specific behavior, [3] motivated behavior is always directed towards a goal, [4] when a goal is perceived to be impossible a state of disequilibrium exists, and finally, [5] all behavior is motivated and all behavior makes sense (Crabb, 1986). Motivation is a drive toward security and significance, with these thoughts in mind, Dr. Crabb details that the definitive goal of counseling is to â€Å"free people to better worship and serve God by helping them become more like the Lord† (1977). Individual differences In counseling, the level of maturity of each client must be assessed. Individuals are in the process of ‘moving over’ and ‘moving up’, clients differ in as to where they are in the process of dealing with presenting problems in a manner consistent with scripture and developing a Christ-like character (Crabb, 1977). Perhaps the most important reason that accounts for individual differences is that God provided free will to His creation. This free will makes each person unique and not merely a puppet with predetermined actions. Alteration of procedure used in counseling is necessary when dealing with different types of people. Some clients should be approached in a feeling level while others should be led spiritually. Cognitive based personalities are best dealt with on the thinking level and those suffering from physical disabilities are helped first with their tangible needs (Hawkins, 2006). Health A contextual explanation of health All counselors should want their clients to become healthy. According to McMinn (1996), the three factors that determine health are: accurate awareness of self, accurate awareness of needs and involvement in healthy relationships. Basing self-worth on the word of God is an effective strategy; to be able to create a self-image based on the unconditional love of Christ is a helpful direction for people who are injured in the different psychological aspects of their lives. McGee (1992) states, â€Å"changing our beliefs from false beliefs to the truths of God’s Word will assist us in experiencing more appropriate emotions and thereby will change the way we respond†. Helping clients to become more Christ-like in seeking self-worth and happiness is the goal of Christian counseling. A contextual explanation of illness The sources of illness are biological, cognitive, emotional and spiritual. Biological are often the easiest to identify they have physical signs that can be studied. Biological illnesses include physical sickness, chemical imbalances, and traumatic abuse. Typically, biological problems can be treated with medications or removal of the source of problem. For instance, physical trauma caused by an abusive husband involves treatment wherein the first step is to remove the victim from the abusive relationship. The cognitive aspect is the area of focus for most counseling therapies. Many problems that counselors must contend with relate to cognitive disorders, including depression, anxiety, guilt, and fear. The illnesses with a cognitive source are of critical concern as they are often more difficult to treat than biological illnesses. Emotional causes must also be considered. Sandra Wilson’s (2001) mantra of Hurt People Hurt People explains how emotional damage begets more emotional damage. Out of wounded emotions, people repeat the same torture to those they are closest to. Finally, illnesses can also be of a spiritual character. In order to be successful and productive counselors â€Å"we have to learn to distinguish between organic or psychological mental illness and a spiritual battle for the mind,† (Anderson, 2000). Spiritual illnesses stem from sin, a lack of faith, and destructive influences. Anderson (2000) advises, â€Å"Don’t think Satan is no longer interested in manipulating your mind in order to accomplish his purposes. Satan’s perpetual aim is to infiltrate your thoughts with his thoughts and to promote his lie in the face of God’s truth. He knows that if he can control you thoughts, he can control your life† Therapeutic Involvement Techniques, methods The Bible provides excellent guidance in various aspects of life; it is an excellent source for every Christian counselor. Accordingly, â€Å"all Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness† (2 Timothy 3:16-17). In a helping relationship, techniques are used to help the client reach the point of change. One approach that Christian counselors should not be without is prayer. Craigie and Tan (as cited in McMinn, 1996) write, â€Å"Indeed, praying with clients that they may be liberated from resistant misbeliefs, that they may be empowered to do the truth, and that they may come into a deeper relationship with the truth can sometimes be a most powerful experience†. The use of scripture in therapy sessions is useful in integrating God’s Truths to a client’s mindset. The use of the technique miracle question is helpful; this is a method of questioning which begins by helping the client imagine a situation wherein, overnight, a miracle happens that solves all their familial problems. The client has to define what differences they would observe to prove that a miracle had taken place. This is vital in making the client realize how vastly improved their relationships will be when the problems are resolved and defines the goal they aim to achieve. The method of Scaling questions is another tool used to rate the client’s current state, with zero/one being the most ideal and ten being the worst, this facilitates the therapist in identifying factors that prevents them from moving up the scale and recognizes what pushes them down. This is helpful in shifting the client’s focus from problems to solutions. The goal of therapy is promoting a high level of self-worth; the therapist must introduce genuineness into the environment by omitting shame from the process. This can be supplemented with compliments and positive encouragement by vocalizing admirable traits; it is a helpful exercise that generates an atmosphere of goodwill more conducive to problem solving. Hawkins (2006b) identifies the first in counseling step as own having an understanding of the real problem. Then, he goes on to reality testing. From there, a plan of action is formulated and the client is occupied with taking tenure to this plan of action and accepting accountability for its conclusion. Lastly, the counselor helps in building support and responsibility into the process of transformation concerning the client. A good cognitive counseling approach is to focus on the inner-voice and truth. The inner-voice is often constructed as a direct result of the temporal and supernatural circles in which an individual develops. In destructive or less-than-ideal relationships, the individual can develop spiteful and untruthful concepts about themselves which are constantly conveyed by the inner-voice. An understanding of truthful reality, often combating the untrue inner-voice, is critical for change. As Dr. Backus and Dr. Chapian explain, â€Å"locating and identifying pain-causing fabrications plus learning the factual reality-based truth† is therapeutic and critical for healing (2000). Expectations in success Counselors can measure success of counseling by evaluating the client’s progress in the accurate awareness of self or needs and by determining if they are participating in healing relationships (McMinn, 1996). McMinn’s affirms that, â€Å"A more careful look suggests that spiritual and psychological health require a confident sense of self, an awareness of human need, and limitations, and confiding interpersonal relationships with God and others† (1996). Real success in psychotherapy is measured by advancement not perfection. Worldview Dimensions Every individual possesses a worldview whether or not they recognize it. For example, the temporal system an individual develops in will have significant impacts on the individual’s worldview. Someone who was raised in a war torn environment with rampant violence and lawlessness will have a different set of moral code than a person is raised in a secure and peaceable community. These worldviews affect the progress in counseling; worldviews differ from person to person and may include science, perception or the Bible. It is imperative for the Christian counselor to have a broad perception of what his/her worldview consists of. The Biblical worldview filters pertinent information through the sieve of God’s Word. Since all issues are not addressed in Scripture, to sift means to see if the issue lines up with God’s Word (Collins, 2001). Uniting psychology, spirituality, and theology encompasses all the components of human behavior necessary to assess functioning (McMinn, 1996). Conclusion The integration of spirituality and theological scriptures to counseling provides a panoramic view of how psychotherapy can progress. The Bible must be used as a reference in choosing ideologies, techniques or processes to integrate in a personal theory. The use of solutions-based therapy, also referred to as ‘solution focused therapy’ or ‘brief therapy’, is a type of talking therapy that is based upon social constructionist philosophy. It includes miracle and scaling questions. It focuses on what clients want to achieve through therapy. The approach focuses on the present and hopes for future, because as Dr. Worthington explains, â€Å"hope provides the motivation to work† (1999). Cognitive therapy can be used most effectively in Christian counseling because the cognitive approach is imperative in changing the client’s self-awareness by challenging negative thoughts and untruths. Cognitive therapy helps unchain the client from unrealistic expectations by perceiving and revising the pointless difficulties they place on themselves. Understanding the components of human personality through the theory of concentric circles is important in developing a complete strategy for helping individuals change. Recognition of an integrated model that considers the scripture of Christian teachings is a potent tool in wrestling against the dysfunction residing in a client’s life. Resources Anderson, N. (2000). The bondage breaker. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers. Backus, William and Chapian, Marie. (2000). Telling yourself the truth. Bloomington, MN: Bethany House Publishers Cloud, H. & Townsend, J. (1992). Boundaries: When to say yes when to say no to take control of your life. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Collins, G. (2001). The Biblical basis of Christian counseling for people helpers. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress Publishing Group. Crabb, Larry. (1977). Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Hawkins, Ron E. (Speaker). (2006). Model for guiding the counseling process. Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University. Hawkins, R. E. (Producer). (2006b). Grid for tracking process [Motion picture]. (Available from Liberty university, 1971 University Boulevard, Lynchburg, VA 24502) Worthington, Everett L. (1999). Hope-focussed marriage counseling. Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Greece. McGee, R. (1992). Search for significance: Build your self worth on the forgiveness and unconditional love of Jesus Christ. Nashville, TN: LifeWay Press. McMinn, M. (1996). Psychology, theology and spirituality in Christian counseling. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. Wilson, S. (2001). Hurt people hurt people: Hope and healing for yourself and your relationships. Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House Publishers.

Homeostatic Imbalances

Homeostasis is extremely important for proper functioning of all the human body systems. When our body is not able to regulate temperature all our body functions will fail to work. Even the enzymes need a specific constant temperature to work at their optimum level. At higher temperatures the enzymes will stop working. (Steadyheatlh, 2004) Dialysis is the artificial process of getting rid of waste (diffusion) and unwanted water from the blood. This process is naturally done by our kidneys. Some people, however, may have failed or damaged kidneys which cannot carry out the function properly, they may need dialysis. Ungar, 2012) Patients with renal failure experience a lot of imbalances while receiving dialysis. Electrolyte imbalances are the most common, usually presenting with hyperkalemia. This happens when the amount of calcium is more than the kidneys can excrete. Arrhythmias may also occur during dialysis. It too causes an imbalance of electrolytes or changes in acid-base homeost asis. Severe cramping, muscle spasms, and low blood pressure are some complications experienced from dialysis. This happens because of the removal of increased volume of fluids.Net filtration pressure is damaged as a result of increased permeability of the membrane. This too causes a homeostatic imbalance. Urinary incontinence and retention, thrombosis, and sleeping problems may all occur from the use of dialysis. (Steadyheatlh, 2004) Other homeostatic imbalance health problems like dehydration, hypertension, diabetes, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, can arise. Homeostasis is extremely important for proper functioning of all the human body systems. When our body is not able to regulate temperature all our body functions will fail to work.Even the enzymes need a specific constant temperature to work at their optimum level. At higher temperatures the enzymes will stop working. Eventually, it can cause death. Proper exercise, a well-balanced diet, and adequate rest can help to achieve hom eostatic balance. (Ungar, 2012) REFERENCES Ungar, J. (2012, June 5). Kidney transplant: end-stage renal disease. Retrieved from http://www. emedicinehealth. com/kidney_transplant/article_em. htm Steadyheatlh, I. (2004, March 8). Complications of dialysis. Retrieved from http://ic. steadyhealth. com/complications_of_dialysis. html

Standing Tall: Japan’s Resilient Luxury Market

McKinsey Consumer and Shopper Insights June 2012 Standing Tall: Japan’s Resilient Luxury Market Brian Salsberg Naomi Yamakawa Photograph: Abbie Chessler 2 In the immediate aftermath of the tsunami, earthquake and nuclear disaster that hit Japan last year, killing 19,000 people and battering the nation’s already shaky confidence, it was hardly surprising that people didn’t feel like shopping. At the time, the conventional wisdom was that such restraint was likely to last.People would still have to shop for essentials, of course, but the market for things like high-fashion apparel and luxury handbags was surely bound to suffer long-term damage. Such thinking made eminent sense – except it didn’t happen. Fifteen months on, today’s luxury market looks a lot like the luxury market that existed the day before the Great East Japan Earthquake, much as we anticipated in last year’s report. 1 Our findings at the time were necessarily tentative, coming as they did less than three months after the disasters.Today, we can assert this with more confidence. When asked if the disasters had changed their attitudes, for example, fewer than 20 percent of the 1,450 Japanese consumers we interviewed were less interested in shopping for luxury goods than they were before the disasters (Exhibit 1). The Cabinet Office’s Consumer Confidence Survey report from May 15, 2012, shows that consumer confidence has risen strongly since March 2011 (to 40. 3) and is back to up to levels last seen in 2010. Moreover, in a small but telling sample, when we asked 20 Japan-based luxury company CEOs about their sales outlook, every single one said 2012 would be better than 2011, and almost three-quarters said that the disasters of 2011 had no effect (63 percent) or, counter-intuitively, had a positive effect (10 percent) on company performance. Seventy percent of CEOs Exhibit 1: A vast majority of consumers still have strong interest in luxury Wh ich best describes your own attitudes towards shopping for luxury goods since the earthquake and tsunami on March 11?Percent selecting â€Å"Somewhat less interested,† or â€Å"Less interested† on a 5-point scale Less interested 20s n = 224 30s n = 497 40s n = 414 50s+ n = 323 4. 6 5. 8 10. 4 Somewhat less interested 7. 8 14. 6 22. 4 8. 2 12. 8 21. 0 12. 5 15. 7 28. 2 SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012 were optimistic about the near future and the prospects for Japan’s luxury market (Exhibit 2). Japan’s luxury market rings up between $10-20 billion a year in sales (depending on how the market is defined).That figure is unlikely to grow much, given Japan’s shrinking population, slow economic growth, and cost-conscious consumer attitudes. Strictly from a sales ratio perspective, Japan’s luxury market will continue to wane in importance for most luxury manufacturers. A case in point is LVMH. Just five years ago, Japan accounted for 13 percent of the Exhibit 2: Most executives we surveyed maintain an optimistic view of the future of Japan’s luxury market Which best represents your perspective on the mediumterm future of the luxury goods market in Japan?Percent; n = 20 Somewhat pessimistic 30 35 Optimistic 35 Somewhat optimistic SOURCE: 2012 Luxury CEO survey 1. http://csi. mckinsey. com/Home/Knowledge_by_region/Asia/Japan/japanluxury. aspx 2. Cabinet Office of Japan, http://www. esri. cao. go. jp/en/stat/shouhi/shouhi-e. html 3 â€Å"When it comes to watches, we see customers trading up to higher-end brands and higher-end products. † —Japan president, luxury watch manufacturer company’s global revenue. By 2011, the figure had dropped to 8 percent (and that marked an improvement from 2010).Compare that performance with the rest of Asia, where the company’s sale share rose from 17 percent to 27 percent over the same period. 3 And yet, such figures make it easy to lose sight of one simple reality: Japan remains the world’s third-largest luxury market, after the US and China. more high-end brands than cheaper brands. Not surprisingly, their spending on luxury is not as high as for other age groups, but a higher percentage of them are active in the luxury market (5 percent compared to 2. 3 percent of those age 50 and up).This cohort are more likely to be willing to pay full price and are also more likely to see owning luxury goods as something special. As for men, while they make up a minority of luxury shoppers in Japan, they have stayed more loyal to expensive brands. There are an estimated 3 million men under the age of 34 living alone in Japan. According to government data, average incomes for this group increased by 7 percent Exhibit 3: in 2011, and their spending jumped by 13 percent. Compare this to single women, whose spending grew less than 2 percent, and the average Japanese consumer, whose spending dropped. Young men, it seems, saw the M arch 11 disaster as a good reason to live for the moment, and Japan’s luxury goods market appears to be a beneficiary. Finally, when we look at segmentation by income, Japanese who spend more than a million yen (about $12,000) a year on luxury goods are more than three times as likely to say they are switching to high-end brands than to low-end brands (Exhibit 3). Those who spend less than half as much are reporting the opposite. What we learned Here are some of the most striking insights from McKinsey’s 2012 Luxury Consumer Survey: ?Japan is a market of markets That is, some niches and segments are more promising than others. In terms of products, for example, highend Swiss watches, such as Rolex, Omega, Piaget, and TAG Heuer, have reportedly enjoyed significant growth in the past year. 4 Why? Because luxury consumers seek both emotional and functional benefits. A great watch, they believe, is the kind of item that appreciates in value and can be passed down to the ne xt generation. In terms of behavior, there is opportunity on the sales floor.For reasons that range from a more stable economy to better upselling skills, consumers are trading up in some luxury categories, even as they trade down in others – primarily apparel and similar categories with shorter shelf-lives and greater selections of alternatives. Demographically, younger consumers and men are worthy of particular attention. Twentysomethings are the only group buying Big spenders appear to be â€Å"trading up† to higher-end brands Annual luxury spend (JPY) I am purchasing luxury goods . . . Less often More often Above 1 mil (n = 48) 15 8 I have switched to buying . . More high-end Cheaper brands brands 6 21 0. 5-1 mil (n = 100) 16 5 9 14 Up to 0. 5 mil (n = 953) 22 4 15 5 SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012 Photograph: Abbie Chessler 3. Wall Street Journal, February 21, 2012. 4. Nikkei Weekly, April 2, 2012. 5. Statistics Bureau of Japan, â€Å"Family In come and Expenditure Survey,† first quarter, 2012. 4 ? Experience is increasingly valued The in-store experience is a key element in enjoying luxury, and it may be particularly important in Japan, whose customers are renowned for their high service standards.Asked what were the key elements that enhanced the buying experience, the top two answers Japanese consumers gave were: 1) The staff was kind, and 2) The staff was knowledgeable. Responses were consistent across categories. Luxury executives tell us that for their best customers, the in-store experience and overall customer relationship are nearly as important as product performance. Luxury brands, by definition, are about high quality and exclusivity; providing an excellent customer experience helps to deliver something extra, and those we spoke with are convinced that doing so is well worth the investment.One executive told us that his company, a luxury automaker, saw tremendous value in closely monitoring the daily cust omer relationship management activities of its sales team and using the information to coach staff, not only on closing a sale, but on upselling various options and features. The value of experience also comes through in what consumers tell us they want. There is clear potential for luxury experiences to become â€Å"the next big thing. † Asked their level of interest in various products, those 30 and up named luxury hotels above all others (it ame in second among those in their 20s). Spas and beauty services also scored highly (Exhibit 4). We also asked one of our favorite questions from previous surveys: â€Å"Imagine you won 300,000 yen (about $3,800) in a lottery today. How would you spend it? † Except for those in their 20s, travel scored highest by a decisive margin (Exhibit 5). ? Digital marketing in Japan has far to go Even the executives we spoke to agreed with this. More than twothirds of them admitted that luxury brands have been â€Å"less successful† Exhibit 4: n capturing the changing behavior of consumers, and just 15 percent called online sales a â€Å"meaningful† part of their business in Japan. At the same time, 90 percent said online marketing and promotion was â€Å"somewhat† or â€Å"very† important. A look at the demographics confirms that digital complacency would be a mistake for most luxury players. For one thing, women are more likely than men Are luxury-branded experiences the next big trend? Very interested Interested Think about the luxury brands you like most. When that brand is associated with the following product or service, what would be your level of interest?Percentage of those who are â€Å"very interested† and â€Å"interested† on a scale of 6; n = 1,458 Total Hotel Perfume Home textiles Cosmetics Furniture Spa and other beauty service Home electronic products 13 10 9 10 8 9 8 26 20 21 19 19 17 17 30 30 29 27 26 25 39 20s 14 16 12 16 9 15 24 23 26 29 25 30 33 38 36 45 40 45 30s 14 11 10 12 9 10 27 21 22 20 20 23 24 32 32 32 29 33 41 40s 15 24 39 50s+ 9 5 6 26 19 19 25 25 35 10 15 25 10 18 29 10 14 23 9 15 24 9 12 21 11 18 29 5 16 21 3 20 4 10 14 22 23 9 15 24 7 17 3 19 SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012Exhibit 5: Overall, luxury shoppers show an increased appetite for travel Imagine you won 300,000 yen in a lottery today. How would you spend it? Aggregated average by age group; n = 1,458 20s 100% = 244 Luxury goods 26 30s 224 27 40s 497 21 50s+ 414 21 467 22 410 26 257 27 323 22 Travel Hobbies Living expenses Savings Other 27 25 29 32 26 36 37 9 5 20 2 2011 38 12 6 21 2 2012 6 8 32 1 2011 7 7 33 1 2012 9 7 31 3 2011 9 7 30 1 2012 10 8 28 2 2011 11 6 22 4 2012 1 Includes leather goods/bags, shoes, watches/jewelry SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012 5 We see big tickets becoming even bigger. The level of customization on luxury performance cars has hit a recent high this year: this is where all the money is made. â⠂¬ Ã¢â‚¬â€President, luxury car manufacturer to use digital means on their Consumer Decision Journey;6 this matters because women account for about 75 percent of luxury sales in Japan. For another, almost 16 percent of 20-somethings who had a smartphone or tablet had used it for their last luxury purchase, compared to 5 percent for over-50s; and a full 75 percent of younger consumers had used their device to check prices (Exhibit 6).Capturing the younger consumer is vital, given the looming cloud that is Japan’s relentlessly aging society. As established brands strive to ensure they remain relevant to Japan’s technologically-oriented young people, it is plausible, even likely, that a digital component will be central to those efforts. Likewise social media cannot be ignored. A February 2012 Nikkei survey of Japanese smartphone users showed that about 80 percent of women in ther 20s and 30s, 80 percent of men in their 20s, and 60 percent of men in their 30s and 40s us e social media. 7 ?Old-school rules – by default Because the luxury experience is so important, it stands to reason that both sexes and all ages strongly prefer to do their high-end shopping in person. They still like it best of all in department stores (Exhibit 7). It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that the department store format is thriving. On the contrary: while the sheer number of department stores in prime locations all but guarantees a large audience of shoppers, the tired format has yet to find its place in today’s more dynamic, user-friendly retail landscape.What it all means Based on this research and our experience with many retail clients, we have identified several important implications. ? Own the interplay between digital and in-store touchpoints and embrace social media Just a few years ago, at one of McKinsey’s annual luxury leader dinners in Japan, the consensus in the room was that social media and Exhibit 6: luxury were mutually ex clusive. After all, the thinking went, social media is inclusive by definition, and luxury is exclusive.Today, companies like Burberry are demonstrating just how backward and self-defeating that thinking was. Burberry boasts 12 million Facebook followers, 800,000 Twitter followers, and 12 million views on 250 different YouTube videos. In a statement accompanying Burberry’s results over the sixmonth period to September 30, 2011, Angela Ahrendts, the CEO, Smart phones have become an important tool in purchase process for younger consumers General public Do you own a smartphone or tablet PC? Did you use it for your last luxury purchase?Percent, n = 1,458 Shoppers who used a I used it on my last smartphone or tablet PC on I have smartphone/tablet PC luxury purchase last luxury purchase 20s n = 224 30s n = 497 40s n = 414 50s+ n = 323 12 68 36 53 26 46 20 27 Luxury purchases 23 16 22 12 17 8 19 5 SOURCE: Impress R&D ? Smartphone/mobile use trend survey? , 2012 Luxury CEO dinner re spondent survey Exhibit 7: Department stores continue to play crucial role for the category, but three other channels are also strong Thinking about the past 12 months, what channels did you visit to buy luxury goods? multiple answer) Department Fashion goods n = 296 Leather goods n = 294 Watch/jewelry n = 270 Shoes n = 236 76. 2 58. 1 64. 2 77. 0 Brand shop 35. 5 27. 0 34. 2 39. 2 17. 0 33. 0 Outlet 39. 7 39. 7 Duty Free Shop 35. 4 32. 3 28. 6 29. 7 SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012 6. The term â€Å"Consumer Decision Journey† refers to the progression from initial consideration, active evaluation, and moment of purchase to post-purchase experience and loyalty, first presented in the McKinsey Quarterly, â€Å"The Consumer Decision Journey,† June 2009. 7.Nikkei Shohi Watcher, â€Å"The ‘Smart’ Set is Mainly Female† (â€Å"Suma-ju† na hitobito shuuyaku wa josei), February 2012, p. 22. 6 attributed the company’s strong r esults to â€Å"continued investment in innovative design, digital marketing, and retail strategies†. Tiffany & Co. has also embraced digital media, with a highly regarded e-commerce site, Facebook presence, and even an iPad app showcasing its famous line of engagement rings. A key to succeeding in social media is to deliver the brand story and heritage consistently across media while tailoring messages to the specific consumer segments that are using each media format.It’s also important to understand the role each medium plays in the Consumer Decision Journey. For example, in cosmetics it can be easier to introduce cosmetic routines (e. g. , how and in what sequence to apply the product) in store, but consumers often seek out additional information and reviews online. For apparel and accessories, customers may go to the store to buy, since they want to be able to touch items and try them on. The initial introduction and attraction often happens outside the store â₠¬â€œ from storefronts, wordof-mouth, or magazines.Winners will be those who can excel at multichannel marketing and sales. ? Make the most of travel retail Japanese consumers love to travel – up to 20 percent of all luxury consumers have shopped abroad in the past 24 months (Exhibit 8). This accounts for the crucial role of dutyfree shops, where a third of luxury consumers have shopped in the last year. Women are particularly prone to stopping by duty-free, with 36 percent of them buying there. As a result of international travel and the Internet, consumers today know what luxury goods cost both inside and outside Japan, and they ay be timing their shopping to take advantage. This is especially poignant for luxury manufacturers – they need to recognize that the consumer relationship with any given brand crosses international borders. That fact has implications for after-sales service, and underscores the importance of maintaining consistency with the face of the brand across both channels and geographies. For a number of years, we have been observing the emergence of â€Å"global tribes†, that is, groupings of consumers who have more in common with their counterparts in other geographies than with their fellow countrymen.Easy access to social media and cheap travel will only deepen this phenomenon. In response, luxury manufacturers will need to do much more than simply accept that today’s consumers are global; they will need to make their brands even more so. ? Manage parallel imports Parallel imports – identical products imported from a foreign country, then sold for much less – cannot be prevented, but can be managed. Some brands are trying to restrict parallel imports by tracking serial numbers to determine where the imports are coming from, and decreasing Exhibit 8: argins for retailers who are caught. Others are putting limits on aftersales services available to parallel imports. Few companies have chosen to move to one global, exchangeadjusted recommended retail price, though that may become a more standard approach. ? Embrace customization and made-to-order luxury Building off a trend popularized by other consumer-goods companies, such as Adidas and Nike in sports footwear, luxury auto manufacturers, and luxury handbag and accessory players are embracing customization.This is consistent with a broader consumer trend in developed markets (the â€Å"My† generation) where niche is replacing mass in many areas and consumers have grown used to customizing everything from their playlists to their iPhone covers. Luxury has always been synonymous with exclusivity, but with so many stores and so many new channels to buy from, we have begun to see a â€Å"commoditization† of exclusivity. In a sense, then, customization is the ultimate in exclusivity. For example, Louis Vuitton recently launched a service in Japan that allows customers to select the leather and then design uniqueJapanes e consumers continue to purchase luxury items abroad 2012 2011 2010 Which of the following places did you make a luxury purchase in last 2 years? Percent of respondents who bought luxury goods in category abroad within last 24 months; multiple answer; 2012 Top 5 Hawaii Korea Europe North America (excluding Hawaii) Hong Kong/Macau SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2011/2012 14 10 12 14 17 17 18 22 21 22 22 25 27 32 19 7 â€Å"We continue to be concerned about the relevance and impact of department stores. We can’t stop experimenting with new concepts. —Japan president, global luxury accessory and apparel player products. Some luxury carmakers tell us their strong revenue growth in Japan has come not because they are selling more cars, but because buyers are loading up on various bells and whistles to create their own personalized, ideal vehicle. Of course, customization comes at a cost to luxury manufacturers, adding complexities to the supply chain and bey ond. It must be reserved primarily for truly high-end products. the number of car-sharers has increased 10-fold, to 170,000, and revenues ould surge to $550 million by 2016, according to estimates from Frost & Sullivan. 9 This shift to value is real and enduring. So, we believe, is the emphasis on discretion. In the wake of the earthquake, the percentage of those who said that showing off luxury goods was in bad taste rose sharply, from 24 percent to 49 percent; this year, it was 51 percent. The quest for value and a desire to avoid the appearance of conspicious consumption are not necessarily antithetical to an appreciation of luxury. These attitudes can co-exist.In fact, that precisely describes the state of the Japanese market: Consumers are ready, willing, and sometimes eager to buy. But they are doing so with rigorous deliberation. Exhibit 9: Brian Salsberg is a principal in McKinsey’s Tokyo office and a leader of the Consumer & Shopper Insights center in Asia. Naomi Yam akawa is a marketing expert in Tokyo. The authors wish to thank Georges Desvaux, Todd Guild, Ryu Iwase, Euljeong Moon, Yuka Morita, and Kohei Sakata for their help. Conclusions Only a little more than a year after the worst crisis to hit Japan since World War II, the Japanese luxury market is stable.Ultimately, it comes down to this: despite deflation and disaster, Japanese consumers continue to want luxury goods and to buy them at a good clip. But – and this has been true since the financial crisis hit in 2008 – they are more cautious about price and more demanding. They do not just want an expensive product to look great and to work beautifully, but to satisfy other needs, whether emotional or even social. Half of luxury car buyers, for instance, say that â€Å"eco-friendliness† is important to them (Exhibit 9). The quest for value, in all its forms, is becoming characteristic up and down the retail chain.As we argued in the McKinsey Quarterly in 2010, many co nsumers have diverted a chunk of their spending away from high-priced prestige. 8 Wal-Mart, Amazon, Costco, Ikea, Daiso, Uniqlo, private-label foods, and the low- to middle-end specialty apparel players are all doing conspicuously well. Then there is carsharing – short-term rentals by the hour. This service barely existed in 2009 (revenues were about $17 million). Today it has become positively mainstream. With many Japanese deterred by the high price of owning and maintaining a car,Photograph: Abbie Chessler What do luxury consumers think of luxury automobiles? 2012 2011 Regarding luxury cars, do you agree/disagree to the below statements? Percent who answered â€Å"strongly agree† and â€Å"agree† within 6 scale; n = 1,458 Luxury cars have characteristics that justify the premium price 20s 30s 40s 50s+ 31 37 33 30 35 33 41 39 9 12 11 11 10 It's worth the money to buy a luxury car for the superb driving experience 13 13 12 Being â€Å"eco-friendly† is as important for luxury cars as design or driving experience 51 47 48 50 56 52 52 44SOURCE: McKinsey Japan Luxury Consumer Survey 2012 About the Japan Luxury Consumer Survey McKinsey conducted this national online survey of 1,450 consumers in April and May 2012, for the fourth year in a row. Focusing on four categories (fashion, leather goods, shoes, and watches/jewelry), we interviewed 250 to 300 luxury consumers (defined as those who have purchased any one of 174 brands in the last two years). We also spoke to 350 â€Å"lapsed† luxury buyers. Two-thirds of the respondents were female. 8. McKinsey Quarterly, â€Å"The new Japanese consumer,† March 2010. ttps://www. mckinseyquarterly. com/The_new_Japanese_consumer_2548 9. Frost & Sullivan, â€Å"Strategic Analysis of the Car-Sharing Market in Japan,† July 2011 8 What McKinsey’s Consumer and Shopper Insights portal has to offer Where do more than 15,000 executives get their daily dose of consumer insights? c si. mckinsey. com. Sign up now. It’s free. ? ? ? ? ? How are China’s hypermarkets different from Western ones? (One clue: those live chickens in the food aisle. ) How is the digital consumer changing? (In six major ways. ) How are Mexican consumers feeling? (Not great. Are global luxury shoppers cutting back? (Not so much. ) Is Poland promising territory for online retailers? (Yes. ) The 21st century has already seen the unimaginable and the improbable. But here is one certainty: The world is about to see the biggest increase in consumption in history. Learn all about it—and be part of the conversation—at csi. mckinsey. com. These are just a few of the questions asked and answered on csi. mckinsey. com. As a global consultancy, McKinsey has the resources, and the desire, to explore the ever-changing, ever-elusive global consumer.To take just one example, we have spoken with more than 60,000 Chinese shoppers to discern what they are thinking, buying and thinking about buying. Here’s another example: Since August 2008, McKinsey has interviewed a representative sample of Americans every six months to track their attitudes and spending. How do the world’s digital consumers spend their online time? We can tell you that, too. While csi. mckinsey. com is a rich forum for McKinsey’s work, we also spotlight the best of others, not only on the site, but on our Facebook and Twitter accounts (@mckinsey_csi).By combining the best of McKinsey and the best of the rest, we add something new to the site almost every day. We believe this makes csi. mckinsey. com the go-to place for those who need the freshest, smartest thinking on why consumers do what they do. What’s next? We want to get our users more involved; we’d also like to diversify how we present our materials. So we hope you will join us as we continue to improve csi. mckinsey. com. Just click the sign-up button on the top right of the site, or emai l us at [email  protected] com. We’ll send you notices of what’s new about twice a month. ttp://csi. mckinsey. com 9 McKinsey Consumer and Shopper Insights You can dowload McKinsey’s previous luxury reports at http://csi. mckinsey. com July 2010 McKinsey Asia Consumer and Retail McKinsey Asia Consumer and Retail Luxury goods in Japan: Momentary sigh or long sayonara? How luxury companies can succeed in a changing market Japan’s luxury consumer: Detecting a pulse? Special Report: McKinsey & Company Japan Luxury Goods Survey 2010 Brian Salsberg Naomi Yamakawa Luxury goods in Japan: Momentary sign or long sayonara? (June 2009) Japan’s luxury consumer: Detecting a pulse? (June 2010) June 2011Consumer and Shopper Insights August 2011 August 2010 CSI Insights Flash June 2010 McKinsey Consumer and Shopper Insights McKinsey Consumer & Shopper Insights Korea’s luxury market: Demanding consumers, but room to grow McKinsey Asia Consumer and Shopper I nsights No seismic shift for luxury in postquake Japan Special Report: Japan Luxury Goods Survey 2011 Understanding China’s Growing Love for Luxury By Aimee Kim and Martine Shin Key themes from the 2011 McKinsey Korea Luxury Consumer Survey Every year since 2006, sales of luxury goods in South Korea have risen at least 12%1, to an estimated $4. billion in 2010. In the first four months of 2011, sales at department stores were up more than 30% compared to 2010. 2 This continues an established trend, as last year’s report on the market showed (see report at csi. mckinsey. com: â€Å"Living it up in luxury. †) Still, insiders are asking whether it can last. For one thing, according to McKinsey’s survey, the percentage of household income that luxury consumers spend on luxury is already higher in South Korea (5%), than in Japan (4%)3—and the Japanese luxury market has been stagnant in recent years.Moreover, the performances of famous brands in Korea ha ve been mixed. For example, LVMH and Ferragamo continued to do well, but others, like Gucci Group and Dior, saw sales drop in real terms in 2010. 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thus, while the headline news is that the luxury market is still growing strongly, uncertainty is also mounting. In this year’s report, McKinsey addresses these concerns, which come in the form of three key questions: Can South Korea keep it up? What’s changing?And what do these trends mean for the players in the luxury industry? To answer these questions, for the second year in a row, McKinsey surveyed 1,000 Koreans who had purchased at least 1 million Korean won ($930) in luxury goods in the previous year across four categories —fashion apparel, leather goods, shoes, and watches/jewelry. Among the respondents were 200 â€Å"heavy purchasers†Ã¢â‚¬â€those who had spent at least 10 million Korean won ($9,300). We also interviewed 24 senior executives of luxury-goods companies. Here’s what we found. 5Let’s start with the proposition that not all consumers are created equal; to a startling degree, it is mainly the heavy purchasers who are keeping the Korean luxury market rolling with such force. For example, Lotte department store estimated that the number of â€Å"Most Valuable Customers†Ã¢â‚¬â€those who spend 15 million won ($14,000) or more a year—rose 14. 4% in 2010, compared to 9. 2% for other kinds of luxury consumers. The number of VIP customers at Shinsegae department store —those who spend more than 8 million won ($7,400) —grew 35%, compared to 12% for other consumers. 6 Shopping at the high end also appears to be habit-forming.McKinsey found that heavy purchasers are much more likely to say that they enjoy their goodies â€Å"as much as I always have† vs. non-heavy customers (33% to 12%). This difference in attitude was reflected in their actual spending: The big-spenders indicated that they had spent more on all four luxury categories in the previous 12 months. Non-heavy buyers were pickier: While they spent more on watches and leather, they spent less on South Korea: Living it up in luxury Special Report: 2010 Luxury Goods Survey McKinsey & Company South Korea Brian Salsberg Naomi Yamakawa 1. Can South Korea keep it up?Yes. A number of trends, small and large, are creating a model of sustainable growth for the next three to five years. McKinsey Insights China Euromonitor Ministry of Knowledge Economy McKinsey analysis Financial Supervisory Service The report surveyed at least 200 luxury consumers for each product category; luxury consumers were screened based on purchase history of select luxury brands (ranging from affordable â€Å"masstige† brands to â€Å"super premium† brands) and included 85 luxury fashion apparel brands, 57 luxury leather goods and shoes brands, and 47 luxury watch/jewelry brands.Asia Economy, â€Å"VIP customers have increased at department stores,† August 28, 2010 No seismic shift for luxury in post-quake Japan (June 2011) Understanding China’s growing love for luxury (March 2011) Korea’s luxury market: Demanding consumers,but room to grow (August 2011) South Korea: Living it up in luxury (August 2010)

Medieval Peasants Were More Important Than Monks And Knights Essay

Medieval Peasants Were More Important Than Monks And Knights - Essay Example Daily lives of the three social classes explain their relative significance in medieval society. Peasants belonged to the lowest social class and were despised, despite their contribution to society and their direct help to members of the higher social classes. Even though peasants were not entitled to large pieces of land, they had an opportunity to own land from their respective lords. They could offer labor as a price for ownership and this meant that as long as a peasant could work and be motivated towards land ownership, they could own as much land as their efforts could allow. Consequently, the peasants could meet their needs from land ownership, especially with respect to basic needs and this established significant equivalence between members of the social class and members of higher social classes. ...it activates in the absence of the monks and the knights while the monks and the knights could not offer labor into some of the society’s economic activities.1 Understan ding the roles that the monks and the Knights played in the society also explains the relative significance of the peasants over monks and knights. Core objectives of the monks, as their three main vows suggest, were to ensure eradication of poverty, to ensure chastity, and to ensure obedience. Unlike the peasants who offered labor in an almost capitalistic scope and therefore ensured production of goods and services towards their master’s desired volumes, the monk's economic activities focus on eliminating poverty but not wealth creation. These factors identify more economic significance peasants than the monks because the monks economic activities were limited to â€Å"necessary supplies of vegetables and grain†.2 The monks’ other points of focus, chastity, and obedience, are also secondary needs and this identifies more significance of the peasants in resource creation towards meeting people’s basic needs. The monks’ areas of operation were also limited to monasteries while the peasants contributed to a wider scope of the society. Lives and functions of knights were also limited to the lives and interests of the noble class and not on the community’s basic needs. members of the social class focused on wars that their lords fought and spent most of their times preparing their weapons and keeping themselves fit to defend their lords from possible attacks and to attack enemies as deemed by the lords.

Discussion on C.P.Ellis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion on C.P.Ellis - Essay Example Later on in the passage, C.P realized that, people are not made up of their color and was even ready to work with a black woman (Lecture notes 8). This passage makes an individual to look at the factors that made him join the Ku Klux Klan. It also makes individuals understand why others have prejudice or become racist against other of people. This passage makes one understand that, the main causes of prejudices are psychological, and these includes frustration, low self-esteem, and a societal cause such as financial competition. These factors provide an explanation C.P. Ellis’ racial behavior. From these few descriptions, I agree with the C.P. Ellis, and the question that comes into my mind is that, why is racism and prejudices so persistent yet researchers know their roots? It is also ironical that Ellis’ wish for success not only directed him to Klansman but also molded him. Furthermore while in the group he discovered that the African people where ordinary people (596). Furthermore, the society also had white people from low-income group just like the black low-income people. The story provides a description of how he works with Ann on the assigned project. From the teamwork, Ellis’ discovered that he was doing something very important. Through his work, he got rid of inferiority complex. It is clear from the passage that inferiority complex can affect an individual’s self-esteem (596). It can either incite someone to have prejudices, or make someone not to have prejudices. Ellis’ frustrations were because of his poverty and he was not in a position to get out of the low c lass group of people, so he thought that by joining the Klansmen he would achieve the American dream. In fact, from the story we are told he even blames the black niggers for his economic situation. He says that If they did not have negroes in their schools, then they would not be having financial problems (596). He also adds

The nature of stereotypes in the film Bamboozled Essay

The nature of stereotypes in the film Bamboozled - Essay Example Racial stereotypes are the mental picture created by a specific race based on either what has been said, written or propagated about that race. The notion that all black men beat their spouses is a racial stereotype against black men. However, stereotypes also exist in gender in the notion that all men are better than women. Stereotype can be negative, positive, reversed or inhabited. Spike Lee in his 2000 satirical film, Bamboozled, gives a classic example of the world of stereotypes and brings the concept of stereotype alive. The film features actors Donning, a blackface. A blackface is a makeup of the theatre that is used to depict a black person. The black face is used to bring out the stereotyping of the black people. In the film, Spike Lee uses images to bring out the concept of stereotype. The racial stereotype can be seen using black face to typecast black men. Goodwin (1) in his article, On Truth, Justice, and Videotape, brings out how the power of images can depict different results. In the article where Rodney King had been abused by policemen, the jury interpreted the images in the video in a different light than that taken by the black people. It is all about what one wants to see in an image that gives the image life and different messages from a particular image. Though the black community demonstrated against the holding of the jury, the jury held that the images in the video did not show the policeman at fault. Mitchell (306) asserts that in the film, Bamboozled, Spike Lee has found a way of navigating through the messy waters of colour by using satire and ultimately converting it to tragedy. Spike Lee employs the use of black face to bring out the history of American culture, as well as the cinema industry. The black face portrays the everyday life of the American black people. The actors perform a great job of bringing out racial stereotype while mentioning their character. The black face in the film Bamboozled plays a critical role in

Oral Piercings How To Educate People of Associated Risks Essay

Oral Piercings How To Educate People of Associated Risks - Essay Example The Mesoamericans such as the Aztecs practiced tongue piercing among others as blood offerings to their gods. In the Middle East, Islamic Fakirs and Sufis and from the Far East, Asian Spirit Mediums performed tongue piercing as offerings and to prove their immersion into a trance state (Bmezine 2006). At the turn of the 20th century, carnivals employed the tongue piercing practices of fakirs in their sideshow tricks. American and European audiences caught their first glimpses of tongue piercing and the trend caught on. Today, Elayne Angel is mainly responsible for the popularity and promotion of tongue piercing and is recognized as the first person with a tongue tip and multiple tongue piercings. Similar to pierced ears, oral piercing uses metal jewelry that comes in a variety of styles, including studs, barbells and rings. Tongue, lips or cheek piercing however poses greater health risks and care should be taken in all aspects of the piercing process from choosing the right piercer to using the correct jewelry to aftercare measures to prevent health risks. Tongue piercing has a number of popular names including tongue ring, a misnomer, as rarely are rings worn in tongue piercings. Side-by-side paired tongue piercings are referred as venom piercings or viper bites, suggestive of a snake's fangs. Piercer The risks of employing unsafe procedures, the right piercer must be selected. Ideally such a piercer is someone who: Has undertaken suitable training; is knowledgeable on the subject, knows the safety issues; is skilled, experienced and professional; Performs prudent and safe piercing techniques and cross-contamination control measures; Undertakes his practice in hygienic surroundings that obey the rules relevant local and state policies. Follows OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens standards; Possesses all valid licenses and permits; Spore tests autoclave (sterilizer) regularly and can provide documentation; Utilizes proper sterile instruments and jewelry, and sterile disposable needles; Spends time to provide oral instructions and guidelines in proper care and gives written instructions; Makes him / herself readily available for follow-up and answers questions related to post-piercing issues to resolve problems before injuries arise. Jewelry Wearing appropriate jewelry can reduce the onset of structural damage from tongue and oral piercing. If the jewelry is unsuitably sized, wrongly placed or poorly manufactured, complications may arise. Some considerations: Proper style of jewelry for the specific anatomy and piercing position; Accurately sized jewelry to the area. If long pieces of jewelry results in swelling it should be replaced with a shorter piece after swelling has reduced, as this has less possibility of harmfully afflicting the teeth and other oral structures. Using surgical implant grade jewelry. Jewelry used for piercings must conform to certain standards, material composition and design specifications. Balls on tongue barbells can be made of acrylic to reduce the risk of teeth damage. Ensure that threaded ends are on firmly and tighten them on a daily basis. Contact with the sublingual part of the oral cavity can be minimized by wearing a smaller ball on the tongue's underside. People who have undergone piercing should be cautioned that excessive toying with the jewelry

How a Shorter Working Week Can Help to Keep the Quality of Services Essay

How a Shorter Working Week Can Help to Keep the Quality of Services Intact - Essay Example Based on this research mullins points out that we live in an organisational world where different types of organisations are a necessary part of the society and serve many important needs. This statement appear just as true as the one that all tiers of the present-day society’s structure are more or less regularly shaken by multiple global financial and economic crises – the latest of which is still ongoing, with yet unknown precise dimensions and tail end. Therefore, each and every organisation – whether in the public or private sector – is subjected to the consequences of these crises, with certain implications for the organisation’s modus operandi, operational capabilities, and, above all, the individuals who work for, and depend on, the organisation in question. In order to better understand how our organisation would successfully perform its functions under the above-mentioned circumstances, a few conceptions need to be reviewed. On the one han d all organisations are made of individual members, where the individual is a central feature and necessary constituent part of any organisation’s behavioural situation, whether acting in response to expectations of the organisation, or as a result of influences of the external environment. Individuals and groups interact within the formal structure of an organisation, which is created by management in order to establish relationships between those individuals and groups, as well as to provide order and systems, and to direct the efforts of the organisation into goal-seeking activities...ery organisation – whether in the public or private sector – is subjected to the consequences of these crises, with certain implications for the organisation’s modus operandi, operational capabilities, and, above all, the individuals who work for, and depend on, the organisation in question. In order to better understand how our organisation would successfully perform its functions under the above-mentioned circumstances, a few conceptions need to be reviewed. On the one hand all organisations are made of individual members, where the individual is a central feature and necessary constituent part of any organisation’s behavioural situation, whether acting in response to expectations of the organisation, or as a result of influences of the external environment (Mullins, 1996d, p.5). Individuals and groups interact within the formal structure of an organisation, which is created by management in order to establish relationships between those individuals and groups, as well as to provide order and systems, and to direct the efforts of the organisation into goal-seeking activities (Mullins, 1996d, p.6). Thus, through its formal structure, the organisation – as comprised of the organisation’s members – carry out its activities aimed at achieving certain objectives (Mullins, 1996d). On the other hand, each organisation function s as part of the broader external environment, which affects the organisation through a variety of stimuli, like technological and scientific development, social and cultural influences, economic activity, governmental actions, etc.; while the increasing rate of change in environmental factors, including crises, necessitates certain internal change, as part of a process by which the organisation adapts to the demands of the external

The Rights of the LGBT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

The Rights of the LGBT - Essay Example The achievement of the rights started the law paved way for it by decriminalization of their acts from1967. This was from the moment the Wolfenden report was considered in parliament. Since that time, the group has been involved in a long struggle, as they fight for their rights within the United Kingdom. The group today has achieved a lot, and many bills have been passed in their favor. The law has guaranteed equal treatment for the LGBT group in every sphere of life. They still have a long way to go, since they are still subject to prejudice by the society. However, the situation has greatly improved, and the mechanisms to make it better have been put in place. Table of Contents 1 Table of Contents 2 1. Introduction 3 1.1 Areas of Concerns for the LGBT 4 1.2 Just What is Wrong With the Society? 5 2 The History Of LGBT In U.K 6 2.1 After the Wolfenden Report 9 2.2 Further Reforms From 1967 To 1994 And The Age Of Consent 11 2.3 The Progress From 2000 To Date 14 2.4 Revisiting Section 28 14 2.5 Other Reforms 15 2.6 Have The Social Attitudes Changed? 17 2.7 Further Change For UK 18 2.8 Reasons For Differing Times Of Change In The Rights Of The LGBT 19 3 Conclusion 21 1. Introduction The initials LGBT represent a specific group of people in every society. They represent lesbians, gay, bisexual and transgender or the transsexual individuals. The letter T also represents transvestite group of people. Sometimes the letter Q is added to include the group of questioning youth, who through time have put to book the policymakers the issues that surround this group. Generally, the society in different states does not accept this group. Basing their argument on the moral values that are dictated by traditions and religious backgrounds, most of the society’s members discriminate this group. The law represents this moral ground, and as expected their rights are not a part of the law. On the contrary, the laws incriminate their activities and hence deny them their righ ts. Presently, the group is represented by organizations that are concerned with their rights (Beitz 2009, p.1-5). In the United Kingdom, the discrimination is based on several aspects. This includes discrimination of basic amenities such as housing and access to medical facilities. They are also discriminated on employment opportunities and recruitment on the same. However, the society has changed its attitude on the group over time. Consequently, the law has also been adjusted to accommodate the rights of these individuals. The rights of these groups depend entirely on the ruling of the court, which is guided by the constitution of the state in its ruling (Beitz 2009, p.1-5). Therefore, the organizations that are directly engaged with LGBT have a lot of faith in the law of the land. They understand that the law is a key driver of social change in every country. The ultimate achievement of the rights of the group depends heavily on the interpretation of the constitution. Some of th e decisions made by the courts that are based on the constitution have heavily influenced the change of rights and achievement of equality of the LGBT. In this study, I look into the depths of discrimination in the United Kingdom, with a specials focus on the rights of LGBT.

Fact-Finding Techniques for Requirements Discovery of Business Systems Essay

Fact-Finding Techniques for Requirements Discovery of Business Systems Analysis and Design - Essay Example Denscombe (2007) observes that for success to be registered in any project there is a need for an accurate data collection through specific methods that are to be used. The methods used in finding this information are referred to as fact finding techniques. There are various fact finding techniques including use of interviews, observation, and use of questionnaires among other techniques. Using interviews The interview is one of the fact finding techniques whereby the analysis is done through the collection of information from different persons in an interactive way. In an interview, the research always needs to find the desired facts through talking with the respondents. The facts found are supposed to be verified and clarified. In conduction interviews, enthusiasm should always be generated and the end user is always involved in the process. The identification of the requirements has been often very important before the conduction of interviews. Interviews do involve soliciting of ideas and opinions from the respondents. In interviews as a fact finding technique, there can be the use of unstructured interview. The interviewee id depended on in the provision of a framework and the direction of the discussion. It is generally not done for a specific goal. Structured interviews are done with an aim of getting answers to specific questions that are put down by the interviewer. In interviewing, open and closed ended queries are often used. The open ended questions do allow the interviewee to offer answers as he or she deems while the closed ended questions do have restrictions. Reasons for selecting interviews By using interviews to find the facts, the analyst is always presented with an opportunity of motivating the interviewee to be able to respond to the questions openly and freely. This is because the interviewer and the analyst are always in touch on a one on one basis. The analyst can probe the interviewee for more answers that are thought to be relevant and useful. Due to the physical contact between the analyst and the interviewee, there can always be a re-wording of the questions suppose the interviewee does not understand or get the required concepts. This is an advantage that all the other fact finding techniques does lack. Throughout the interview process, the analyst is in a position to analyze the interviewee’s non verbal communication and body language. This is a vital aspect in the whole analysis of the facts obtained from the interview. (Shelly, Cashman & Rosenblatt, 2009). Implementation of the method In order to carry out a successful interview and obtain the needed data, it is important to have a systematic and a well organized interview. This involves a lot of processes. For instance, selection of interviewees is an important aspect. Those going to be interviewed need to be selected carefully to ensure that the one chosen will offer the desired responses and data. It is important to have end users that are reliabl e. The analyst should have prior knowledge about the interviewees to avoid a lot of conflicts and inconveniences during the actual interviewing process. Preparation for the interview is a major aspect. This can be done through an interview guide. During the actual interview process, the problem that has mooted the interview process should be summarized. The interviewee is also offered some incentive for participating in the interview process. This is to encourage honest response. The analyst’

The Nature Of Being Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Nature Of Being - Essay Example It is manifested in the body as an absolute entity related to love, truth alongside being as well as cause and effect. Spirit relates to the soul in a manner that it rests to the soul its wants, thoughts as well as all that appertain to its being. The soul is the receptive medium where the spirit rests and exercises its thoughts forms. Therefore, it is of crucial significance to underscore the fact that the soul is an entity that must be subjective to the Spirit. The soul as an entity of being is always neutral, passive and plastic. In this manner, it plays the receptive role in an absolute form relevant to the thought forms of the Spirit. This defines the being in the two entities. Soul and spirit must unify and correlate in action to manifest as a being. This unity is contained and exercised within the body. However, in view that the soul just plays a receptive role displaying what the spirit expresses, there are strong links between the spirit and body. However, the role of the soul is not to be under-looked since the three entities act in unity. Therefore, the body is the result or the effect with regards to the objectification of the spirit. It is the visible envelope to the three entities. In other words, the body is the result of the Spirit working in conjunction with the soul. Therefore, from this unity may result in several behaviors. Several of such behaviors as expressed by the body may be used to describe such a being. It is the body that acts as the envelope to accommodate the soul and Spirit.

Eco-feminism & political and social movement Essay Example for Free

Eco-feminism political and social movement Essay Eco-feminism can be defined a political and social movement which aims at combining feminism with environmentalism or, in other words, to unite deep ecology with feminist concepts. Actually, I have chosen eco-feminism as it draws relations between women oppression and degradation of nature. Environmental problems are of great concern now along with women equality. Nature is degrading and women’s rights are still discriminating. Therefore, eco-feminism argues that there is a strong link between degradation of women and oppression of women. Eco-feminism also explores the relations between sexism, racism, domination of nature and social inequality. It is known that eco-feminism originates from union of ecological thinkers and feminist which believe that social mentality is to blame for oppression of women and domination of men. It is directly related to abuse of environment. Eco-feminism is claimed to combine bioregional democracy with eco-anarchism. Eco-feminism strongly proclaims the importance of interrelations between humans and animals, human and insects, and the earth. Central idea of the feminism is that men ownership has resulted in dominator culture promoting food export, tragedy of the commons, abusive land ethics, exploitation of people and over-gazing. Land and animals are viewed only as economic resources and eco-feminism aims at fighting such positioning. The primary goal of eco-feminism is to re-define the views on productivity, attitudes of males and females towards nature and animals, as well as to prevent ill-using of animals and insects. The key figures in the development of eco-feminism are Carol Adams, Helene Aylon, Judi Bari, Mary Daly, Monica Sjoo, etc. For example, Carol Adams is interested in relations between feminism and vegetarianism. In her works she wrote that women ahs to abuse their rights to provide men with the best food. Summing up, the primary goal of eco-feminism is to explain associations between degradation of women and degradation of nature. Works Cited Eco-feminism. Available at http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ecofeminism. Accessed April 20, 2008 List of Feminists. Available at http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/List_of_feminists. Accessed April 20, 2008

Risks of Engineered Nanoparticles for the Environment

Risks of Engineered Nanoparticles for the Environment Abstract: The objectives of this article are to: (1) investigate the current state of knowledge of the risks of engineered nanoparticles for the environment and human health, (2) estimate whether this knowledge is sufficient to facilitate their comprehensive and effective risk assessment and (3) provide recommendations on future research in the field of risk assessment of nanomaterials. In order to meet the objectives, the relevance of each of the four steps of the risk assessment methodology (i.e., hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization) was evaluated in the context of the current state of knowledge of the risks of nanomaterials, limitations were identified and recommendations were given on how to overcome them. Keywords: engineered nanoparticles; risk assessment; hazard identification; dose-response assessment; exposure assessment; risk characterization; environmental sustainability; human health Introduction Background In contrast to the small size of the nanoparticles, the scale of their application is tremendous. Nanotechnology influences virtually all industrial and public sectors, including healthcare, agriculture, transport, energy, materials, information and communication technologies. Both the potential benefits and the risks, associated with the application of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) have been largely debated in recent years. In contrast to the dominating optimistic projections that nanotechnology will bring significant technological development and well-being to society, it is considered that exposure to certain ENPs may cause environmental problems and/or do harm to human health. Since the early discussions about the risks of ENPs, the chemical risk assessment (CRA) has been put forward as the most relevant approach to understand, evaluate and quantify these risks. Currently, a variety of methodologies are being internationally discussed and evaluated with great vengeance with the idea that, in the near future, it will be possible to perform complete and scientifically sound risk assessment of ENPs. Objectives The objectives of this article are to: Investigate the current state of knowledge of the risks of ENPs for the environment and human health Estimate whether this knowledge is sufficient to facilitate comprehensive and effective risk assessment of ENPs Provide recommendations on future research in the field of risk assessment of ENPs Methodology This article is based on an extensive review of literature published in the period: January 1992- September 2009. The selected literature consisted mainly of scientific publications, but also books, information from conferences and patent data were used. Nanotechnology and Its Applications Nanotechnology and Nanoparticles Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology, dealing with the organization and control of matter on the nano-scale (i.e., between 1 and 100 nm) and the manufacturing of products and devices with dimensions, lying within this size range. A nanometer (nm), from the Greek nanos for dwarf, equals one billionth of a meter. Nanomaterials are all materials with sizes on the nano-scale in at least one of their dimensions [1], while nanoparticles are materials, nano-sized in at least two dimensions [2]. The nomenclature nanoparticles encompasses particles as well as fibrous materials and tubes, but it excludes materials, such as coatings, films and multilayers. Two types of nanoparticles (NPs) can be distinguished: (1) naturally occurring NPs (e.g., produced naturally in volcanoes, forest fires or as combustion by-products) and (2) engineered nanoparticles (ENPs), deliberately developed to be used in application (e.g., carbon black, fumed silica, titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide (FOx), quantum dots (QDs), fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), dendrimers). Naturally occurring NPs do NOT fall in the scope of this article. The paper encompasses only ENPs. The main reasons why materials, built of ENPs, have different optical, electrical, magnetic, chemical and mechanical properties from their bulk counterparts are that in this size-range quantum effects start to predominate and the surface-area-to-volume ratio (sa/vol) becomes very large [1]. The sa/vol of most materials increases gradually as their particles become smaller, which results in increased adsorption of the surrounding atoms and changes their properties and behavior. Once particles become small enough, they start to obey the quantum mechanical laws. Materials reduced to the nano-scale can suddenly show very different properties, compared to what they exhibit on the macro-scale, which enables unique applications. For example, opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable materials become combustible (aluminum); inert materials become catalysts (platinum); insulators become conductors (silicon); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold) [3]. Areas of Application Today, nanotechnology is available on the market for great variety of applications. Some examples are: cosmetics and sunscreens, water filtrations, glare filters, ink, stain-resistant clothing, more durable tennis balls, more lightweight tennis rackets, dressings for burns or injuries. [4]. Defining Hazard and Risk The term hazard has many definitions. This paper uses the definition of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which defines hazard as the inherent toxicity of a compound [5]. According to this definition, if a chemical substance has the property of being toxic, it is therefore hazardous. Any exposure to a hazardous substance may lead to adverse health effects in individuals or even death. EPA defines risk with respect to the above definition of hazard as a measure of the probability that damage to life, health, property, and/or the environment will occur as a result of a given hazard [5]. According to this definition, if the probability of an exposure to a hazardous material is high and the consequences for the health or environment are significant, then the risk is considered to be high. It is important to consider both the frequency of the event and the degree of the hazard to estimate risk [2]. Usually two categories of risk are distinguished in literature: known risks and potential risks. When the relation between a cause and an effect is established, we talk of known risks. The responsibility for such risks can generally be attributed. When the causal relationship is established, prevention is possible. When the relationship between a cause and damage is not well known, we talk of potential risks. In case of potential risks, it is unclear whether there is a danger, how significant the damage can be or what is the probability of its occurrence [2, after 6]. This situation is characterized by a state of suspicion (not awareness) and it is generally admitted that a precautionary approach can be applied in order to prevent potential damage [2, after 6]. The risks of ENPs for the environment and human health fail in the second category: potential risks. It is very important to assess the risks of hazardous agents. The likelihood that a hazardous substance will cause harm (the risk) is the determinant of how cautious one should be and what preventative or precautionary measures should be taken. Risk Assessment of ENPs Since the early debates about the potential hazards of ENPs, the risk assessment of chemicals (CRA) has been put forward as the most relevant approach to understand and quantify the related risks [7]. CRA is a process, in which scientific and regulatory principles are applied in a systematic fashion in order to describe the hazard, associated with the environmental and/or human exposure to chemical substances. It is defined as a process, intended to calculate or estimate the risk to a given target organism, system or (sub)population, including the identification of attendant uncertainties, following exposure to a particular agent, taking into account the inherent characteristics of the agent of concern, as well as the characteristics of the specific target system [8]. The CRA is a four-step process, consisting of: (1) hazard identification, (2) dose- response assessment, (3) exposure assessment and (4) risk characterization. Its main outcome is a statement of the probability that whe n humans or other environmental receptors (e.g., plants, animals) are exposed to a chemical agent, they will be harmed and to what degree. The CRA methodology is internationally recognized and employed by major actors, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), as well as by several European and U.S. agencies [9]. It is considered a valuable tool, very important for the regulation of chemicals. CRA is also a fundamental ingredient of the new European Union (EU) chemical regulation policy, known as Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH). In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the current state of knowledge of the risks of ENPs for the environment and human health were summarized and evaluated in relation to each of the four elements of the CRA framework, as more important scientific findings were highlighted and limitations were identified and discussed. Hazard Identification Hazard identification (HI) is defined as the identification of the adverse effects, which a substance has an inherent capacity to cause [10, after 11]. Until recently, much of the discussion about the environmental and health risks of ENPs was considered to be rather speculative than realistic. In the last few years, however, a number of experimental studies found that exposure to certain ENPs can lead to adverse health effects in living organisms. In 2007, Hansen et al. identified 428 studies reporting on toxicity of ENPs [12]. In these studies, adverse health effects of 965 tested ENPs of various chemical compositions were observed [12]. Current State of Knowledge The following sections shortly describe some of the most important scientific findings, relevant for HI of ENPs. Their purpose is to summarize the current state of knowledge of the hazards of ENPs, based on experimental studies. For simplification, the studies are divided into two categories in vivo and in vitro studies. In Vivo Studies Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) A study, performed by Lam et al. [13], demonstrated that single- walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are able to cause dose-dependent effects of interstitial inflammation and lesions in mice and rats (0- 0.5 mg kg-1 for 7 to 90 days). Warheit et al. [14] observed pulmonary grandulomas in rats after exposure to SWCNT soot (1 and 5 mg kg-1 for 24 hours to 3 months). In contrast to Lam et al. [13], however, the effects, observed by Warheit et al. [14] were not dependent on dose. Smith et al. [15] tested the ecotoxicity of SWCNTs, dissolved in sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and sonication on juvenile rainbow trout (0.1, 0.25 and 0.5 mg l-1 for 24 hours to 10 days) and they observed a dose-dependent rise in ventilation rate, gill pathologies (oedema, altered mucocytes, hyperplasia), and mucus secretion with SWCNT precipitation on the gill mucus. They also observed a significant dose- dependent decrease in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), especially in the gill, brain and liver , which is an indication of oxidative stress. Multi- walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were shown by Carrero-Sanchez et al. [16], to exhibit acute toxicity in rats with LD90 of 5 mg kg-1. Long MWCNTs were shown by Poland et al. [17] to cause significant inflammation and tissue damage in mice, while shorter MWCNTs caused less inflammation, which suggests that CNT toxicity is influenced by the particle morphology. In addition, they concluded that water-soluble components of MWCNT do not produce strong inflammatory effects in mice. C60 Fullerenes Most studies on the toxicological effects of C60 fullerenes suggest that these materials tend to induce oxidative stress in living organisms [18-21]. Lai et al. [18] observed a significant increase in lipid peroxidation (LP) products (a sign of oxidative stress) after intravenous administration of 1 mg kg-1 C60 (OH)18 in male mongrel dogs. Oberdà ¶rster [19, 20] studied the effects of C60 fullerenes in the brain of juvenile largemouth bass and observed high LP levels (0.5 and 1 ppm for 48 h). Elevated LP was also observed by Zhu et al. [21] in the brain and gills of daphnia magna after exposure to hydroxylated C60 fullerenes (C60 (OH)24) and tetrahydrofuran (THF)- dissolved C60, as it was shown that THF did not contribute to the effect. Sayes et al. [22] detected an increase in the numbers of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL)-recovered neutrophils (i.e., white blood cells) after intratracheal instillation of C60 and C60 (OH)24 in rats, 1 day after the exposure. They also observed a signi ficant increase in LP values 1 week after the exposure. Accute effects of functionalized C60 were also reported . Zhu et al. [21] estimated LC100 in fathead minnow after exposure to 0.5 ppm of THF-dissolved C60 for 6-18 hours. Chen et al. [23] observed a LD50 of 600 mg kg-1 polyalkylsulfonated C60 in female rats after intraperitoneal administration (0- 2500 mg kg-1 for up to 2 weeks). Oberdà ¶rster [24] tested uncoated, water soluble, colloidal C60 fullerenes and estimated a Daphnid 48-hour LC50 of 800 ppb. Metal and Metal Oxide ENPs Li et al. [25] found that metal ENPs induce more severe lung toxicity in mice than bulk particles from the same materials. Gordon et al. [26] tested the effects on humans of exposure to zinc (Zn) ENPs. After 2 hours of exposure to 5 mg m-3 of Zn ENPs, the exposed individuals started feeling sore throat, chest tightness, headache, fever and chills. Beckett et al. [27] repeated that test in three trials, 2 hours each, but at lower concentration (i.e., 500 ?g m-3), and found no indication of adverse effects. The latter two studies suggest that Zn ENPs toxicity is concentration- dependent and the most probable uptake path is through the respiratory system. A study of Sayes et al. [22] concluded that environmental exposure to Zn ENPs causes pulmonary (lung) inflammatory response in mice. Wang et al. [28] found that Zn ENPs can cause severe symptoms of lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of body weight and even death in mice when gastrointestinally administered, whereas they obser ved limited effect for micro- scale Zn at equal concentrations. Yang and Watts [29] tested the effect of Aluminium (Al) ENPs on the relative root growth (RRG) in Zea mays (corn), Glycine max (soybean), Brassica oleracea (cabbage), and Daucus carota (carrot). The study found that the ENPs significantly inhibited the growth of the plants after administration of 2 mg ml-1 for 24 h. Oberdà ¶rster [30] and Oberdà ¶rster et al. [31] observed that smaller TiO2 ENPs tend to cause more severe pulmonary damage in mice than larger particles. In addition, Warheit et al., [32] found that smaller silicon dioxide (SiO2) particles cause stronger lung inflammation in rats than larger ones. Wang et al., [33] noticed that the smaller the TiO2 particle size is, the greater the concentration in the liver of mice is. Bourrinet et al. [34] reported hypoactivity, ataxia, emesis, exophthalmos, salivation, lacrimation, discolored and mucoid feces, injected sclera, and yellow eyes in dogs after single-dose intravenous bolus administration of 20 and 200 mg kg-1 FeO ENPs and a significant increase in fetal skeletal malformations in rats and rabbits. In Vitro Studies Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) A number of cytotoxicity studies with SWCNTs were reported in the literature. Shvedova et al. [35] observed oxidative stress and cellular toxicity in human epidermal keratinocytes, after 2 to 18 hours exposure to unrefined (iron containing) SWCNTs in concentrations, ranging from 0.6 to 0.24 mg ml-1. Cui et al. [36] observed dose- and time- dependent inhibition of cell proliferation and a decrease in cell adhesive ability in human embryo kidney cells after exposure to SWCNTs in concentrations between 0.8 and 200 ?g ml-1. Sayes et al. [37] found that the surface functionalization of SWCNTs plays an important role in their cytotoxicity towards human dermal fibroblasts. Bottini et al. [38] noticed that MWCNTs were more cytotoxic when oxized towards Jurkat T leukemia cells, whereas Monteriro-Riviere et al. [39] observed a decrease of the viability of human osteoblastic lines and human epidermal keratinocytes after exposures to 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg ml-1 of MWCNTs for 1 to 48 hours. Kang et al. [40] compared the cytotoxicity of commercially obtained MWCNTs in bacterial systems before and after physicochemical modification and they observed highest toxicity when the nanotubes were uncapped, debundled, short, and dispersed in solution. Kang et al. [40] concluded that there is need for careful documentation of the physical and chemical characteristics of CNTs, when reporting their toxicity. C60 Fullerenes Adelman et al. [41] observed a reduction of the viability of bovine alveolar macrophages after exposure to sonicated C60 and increased levels of cytokine mediators of inflammation (i.e., IL-6, IL-8 and TNF), while Porter et al. [42] found that C60 and raw soot were not toxic towards bovine- and human alveolar macrophages. The reason behind the discrepancy between the results of Adelman et al. and Porter et al. can be attributed to the fact that they used very different methods. Porter et al. used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to image the distributions of the fullerenes within the macrophages, while Adelman et al. used a viability assay, based on metabolic activity as primary parameter. Studies on the effects of ENPs on alveolar macrophages are very important because the alveolar macrophages are the first line of cellular defense against respiratory pathogens [11, after 43]. Yamawaki Iwai [44] observed dose-dependent cytotoxicity of C60 (OH)24 (1- 100  µg ml-1 for 24 hours), resulting in decreased cell density and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release in human umbilical vein endothelial cells cavity (a sign of increase in non-viable cell numbers). Rouse et al. [45] observed a dose-dependent decrease in the viability of human epidermeal keratinocytes after exposure to C60- phenylalanine, as no contribution to the effect was attributed to the phenylalanine groups. Quantum Dots (QDs) The toxicity of QDs was found to be influenced by several factors: (1) composition, (2) size, (3) surface charge and (4) coating of the QDs [7, 46- 48]. Jaiswal et al. [46] found that CdSe/ZnS QDs (i.e., CdSe QDs in a zinc sulfide (ZnS) matrix), coated with dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) had no effect on mammalian cells, while Hoshino et al. [47] reported adverse effects on mouse lymphocytes after exposure to CdSe/ZnS QDs, coated with albumin. In addition, Lovrà ­c et al. [48] observed that smaller (2.2  ± 0.1 nm), positively charged QDs exhibit stronger cytotoxicity than larger (5.2  ±0.1 nm), equally charged QDs under the same conditions. It was also found that the cytotoxicity of QDs is influenced by the exposure to light and by temperature [49, 50]. Green and Howman [49] observed 56% damaged DNA after exposure to CdSe/ZnS together with UV light versus only 29% after exposure to CdSe/Zn in the absence of UV light. Chang et al. [50] found that CdSe/CdS (i.e., CdSe QDs in a cadmium sulfide (CdS) matrix) were toxic to cancer cells at 37  ºC, but at 4  ºC they were not toxic at all. Metal and Metal Oxide ENPs Sayes et al. [51] found that anatase TiO2 ENPs are able to kill human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells at LC50 of 3.6 ?g ml-1, while Wang et al. [52] observed decrease in the viability of human lymphoblastoid cells due to exposure to TiO2 ENPs (0-130 ?g ml-1 for 6-48 h). Chen Mikecz [53] found that SiO2 ENPs do significantly inhibit replication and transcription in human epithelial HEp-2 cells (25 ?g ml-1 for 24 h). Muller et al. [54] observed that Fe3O4 ENPs, coated with dextran, decrease the viability of human monocyte macrophages. Alt et al. [55] found that nano-particulate silver (Ag) is an effective bactericide against S. epidermidis, while Baker et al. [56] noticed that it effectively kills E. coli bacteria too. Sayes et al. [57] observed an increase in the production of LDH levels (an indicator of inflammation) in immortalized rat lung epithelial cells after 1 hour exposure to Zn ENPs at 520 ?g cm-2. Limitations to Hazard Identification of ENPs It is very important to note that the vast majority of the reviewed studies demonstrate some degree of hazardous effects on the tested organisms. Toxicity has been reported for many ENPs, as shown in the previous sections, but for most of them further investigation and confirmation are needed before hazard can be identified. A lot of studies, relevant for HI, have been carried out with different ENPs, but most of them were obviously not meant to facilitate risk assessment; they use non- standardized tests, differing greatly from each other in regard to endpoints, tested species, methods of administration, dose ranges and exposure periods [7]. The lack of standardized testing results in non-reproducible results and makes the univocal HI of ENPs impossible. Another significant drawback for the HI of ENPs is the serious lack of characterization data, which makes it difficult to identify which physical and/or chemical characteristics (or combinations of characteristics) determine the hazards, documented in the (eco)toxicological studies [12, 58, 59]. Dose-Response Assessment Dose- response assessment (DRA) is defined as an estimation of the relationship between dose, or level of exposure to a substance, and the incidence and severity of an effect [10, after 11]. It is the process of characterizing the relationship between the dose of an agent, administered to or received by an individual, and the consequent adverse health effects. The Concept of Dose In toxicological studies a dose is the quantity of anything that may be received by or administered to an organism. The dose is normally measured in mass units (i.e., ?g, mg, g), as higher doses of the same compounds are expected to cause more severe adverse effects. DRA studies with ENPs, however, suggest that the toxicity of some ENPs is not mass-dependent, but influenced by other physico-chemical characteristics (e.g., surface area, chemical composition, particle morphology) [7, after 60]. Oberdà ¶rster et al. [61] and Stoeger et al. [62, 63] found that the toxicity of low-soluble ENPs was better described by their surface area than by their total mass [7, after 61, 62, 63]. Wittmaack [64, 65] suggested the number of particles as the most appropriate dose metrics, while Warheit et al. [66, 67] found that toxicity of some ENPs was associated with the number of their surface functional groups. Despite these findings, however, it is still largely unknown which properties influence the toxicity of most ENPs and this gap in knowledge is partly attributable to the fact that the tested ENPs are seldom well characterized. Characterization of ENPs Developing understanding about the physical and chemical properties of substances and materials is fundamental for their risk assessment [59]. Studying the standard properties (e.g., composition, structure, molecular weight, melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, octanol-water partitioning coefficient, water solubility, activity, stability) is sufficient for the characterization of most chemical compounds. For ENPs, however, more profound investigation is needed and other properties, such as particle size distribution, sa/vol ratio, shape, electronic properties, surface characteristics, state of dispersion/agglomeration and conductivity need to be studied [5]. The high complexity and great diversity of ENPs, however, make their characterization very difficult [59]. As it can be inferred from the table above, most of the current research on the properties of ENPs is focused on the identification of metrics and associated methods for the measurement of ENPs and their properties. This type of research is fundamental in the sense that without reliable measurement methodology it would be impossible to develop good understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the ENPs. Only few comprehensive studies on the development of standard, well-characterised reference nanomaterials were published so far. To facilitate the appropriate interpretation of testing results, it is essential to select representative sets of ENPs, characterize them and share them among laboratories worldwide. Exposure Assessment Exposure assessment (EA) is defined as an estimation of the concentrations/doses to which human populations (i.e., workers, consumers and man exposed indirectly via the environment) or environmental compartments (aquatic environment, terrestrial environment and air) are or may be exposed. [10, after 11]. EA is a very important element in risk assessment of ENPs, since if no exposure to ENPs occur, it would be impossible that they cause any harm and there would be no risk at all. EA can be divided into three sub-areas: (1) occupational exposure assessment (OEA), (2) environmental exposure assessment (EEA) (including indirect human exposure from the environment) and (3) consumer exposure assessment (CEA). Environmental Exposure Assessment The environment may be exposed to ENPs during all stages of their life-cycles: raw material production, transport and storage, industrial use (incl. processing and/or trade), consumer use, waste disposal (incl. waste treatment, landfill and recovery) [11] (Figure 2.). A very important element of the EEA of ENPs is the study of their environmental fate. The fate of ENPs, released in the environment is determined by their mobility in the different media (i.e., soil, water, air), as well as by their potential to biodegrade or undergo chemical transformation. Environmental Fate of ENPs In order to determine the extent of environmental exposure to ENPs, it is necessary to understand their behavior in the environment. Until now, only a limited number of environmental fate studies with ENPs have been reported and the fundamental mechanisms behind their distribution are still not clearly understood (table 3). Fate of ENPs in Air The fate of ENPs in the air is determined by three main factors: (1) the duration of time particles remain airborne, (2) their interaction with other particles or molecules in the atmosphere and (3) the distance they are able to travel in the air [68]. The processes important to understand the dynamics of ENPs in the atmosphere are diffusion, agglomeration, wet and dry deposition and gravitational settling [68]. These processes are relatively well understood from studying the air-suspended ultrafine particles and that knowledge can be applied to ENPs as well [69]. In some cases, however, there can be considerable differences in behavior between ENPs and ultrafine particles, especially when the latter cannot agglomerate because they are coated [5]. With respect to the duration of time ENPs stay in the air, it is considered that they may follow the laws of gaseous diffusion [70]. The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the particle diameter and the rate of gravitational settling is proportional to it [70]. It is generally considered that particles in the nanoscale (d> 100nm) have shorter residence time in the air, compared to medium-sized particles (100nm> d> 2000nm), because they rapidly agglomerate into much larger particles and settle on the ground [71]. Here again ENPs with anti-agglomerate coatings make an exception and their residence time cannot be predicted [71]. It is considered that deposited ENPs are usually not likely to be re-suspended or re-aerosolized in the atmosphere [72, 70]. Many nano- sized particles are photoactive [72], but it is still unknown whether they are susceptible to photodegradation in the atmosphere. ENPs also show high absorption coefficients [69], and many of them can act as catalysts. However, no information is currently available on the interactions between ENPs and the chemicals they absorb, and how this interaction might influence atmospheric chemistry. Fate of ENPs in Water The fate of ENPs in water is determined by several factors: (1) aqueous solubility, (2) reactivity of the ENPs with the chemical environment and (3) their interaction with certain biological processes [5]. Because of their lower mass, ENPs generally settle more slowly to the bottom than larger particles of the same material [5]. However, due to their high surface-area-to-mass ratios, ENPs readily sorb to soil and sediment particles and consequently are more liable to removal from the water column [73]. Some ENPs might be subject to biotic and abiotic degradation, which can remove them from the water column as well. Abiotic degradation processes that may occur include hydrolysis and photocatalysis [72]. Near to the surface ENPs are exposed to sunlight. It is likely that light-induced photoreactions can account for the removal of certain ENPs and for changing the chemical properties of others [72]. In contrast to the removal processes mentioned above, some insoluble ENPs can be stabilized in aquatic environments. Hoon et al. [74] investigated the aqueous stability of MWCNTs in the presence of natural organic matter (NOM). MWCNTs were readily dispersed as an aqueous suspension and remained stable for over 1 month. Hoon et al. [74] found that NOM is more effective in stabilizing the MWCNTs in water than a solution of 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a commonly used surfactant to stabilize CNTs in the aqueous phase [74]. The C60 fullerenes were found to spontaneously form insoluble, dense aqueous colloids of nanocrystalline aggregates and remain in the aqueous phase for long periods [5]. Another known interaction, which can delay nanoparticle removal from the water column, is the absorption of humic acid. Sea surface microlayers, consisting of lipid-, carbohydrate- and protein-rich components along with naturally occurring colloids, made up of humic acid, may attach ENPs to their surfaces and transport them over long distances [75]. Fate of ENPs in Soil The behavior of ENPs in soil media can greatly vary, depending on the physical and chemical characteristics of the material. Some ENPs can strongly sorb to the soil particles and become completely inert and immobile [5]. On the other hand, if ENPs do not sorb to the soil matrix, they might show even greater mobility than larger particles, because their small size might allow them to travel easily through the pore spaces between the soil particles. The possibility to sorb to soil and the respective sorption strength of ENPs is influenced by their size, chemical composition and surface characteristics [5]. Studies by Zhang [76], Lecoanet and Wiesner [77] and Lecoanet at al. [78] showed considerable differences in mobility of some insoluble ENPs in porous media. The properties of the soil, such as porosity and grain size, further influence the mobility of the particles. Just like the mineral colloids, the mobility of ENPs, agglomerated in colloid-like structures might be strongly affected by electrical charge differences in soils and sediments [76]. Surface photoreactions might induce photochemical transformations on the soil surface [72]. Biodegradation and Chemical Transformation of ENPs In some cases, the biological processes in the environment can lead to the complete degradation of ENPs and sometimes they can only change their physical and/or chemical properties [5]. The mechanisms, which account for